TerraTorch: The Geospatial Foundation Models Toolkit

TerraTorch is a fine-tuning and benchmarking toolkit for Geospatial Foundation Models built on PyTorch Lightning and tailored for satellite, weather, and climate data. It integrates domain-specific data modules, pre-defined tasks, and a modular model factory that pairs any backbone with diverse decoder heads. These components allow researchers and practitioners to fine-tune supported models in a no-code fashion by simply editing a training configuration. By consolidating best practices for model development and incorporating the automated hyperparameter optimization extension Iterate, TerraTorch reduces the expertise and time required to fine-tune or benchmark models on new Earth Observation use cases. Furthermore, TerraTorch directly integrates with GEO-Bench, allowing for systematic and reproducible benchmarking of Geospatial Foundation Models. TerraTorch is open sourced under Apache 2.0, available at https://github.com/IBM/terratorch, and can be installed via pip install terratorch.

Lossy Neural Compression for Geospatial Analytics: A Review

Over the past decades, there has been an explosion in the amount of available Earth Observation (EO) data. The unprecedented coverage of the Earth's surface and atmosphere by satellite imagery has resulted in large volumes of data that must be transmitted to ground stations, stored in data centers, and distributed to end users. Modern Earth System Models (ESMs) face similar challenges, operating at high spatial and temporal resolutions, producing petabytes of data per simulated day. Data compression has gained relevance over the past decade, with neural compression (NC) emerging from deep learning and information theory, making EO data and ESM outputs ideal candidates due to their abundance of unlabeled data. In this review, we outline recent developments in NC applied to geospatial data. We introduce the fundamental concepts of NC including seminal works in its traditional applications to image and video compression domains with focus on lossy compression. We discuss the unique characteristics of EO and ESM data, contrasting them with "natural images", and explain the additional challenges and opportunities they present. Moreover, we review current applications of NC across various EO modalities and explore the limited efforts in ESM compression to date. The advent of self-supervised learning (SSL) and foundation models (FM) has advanced methods to efficiently distill representations from vast unlabeled data. We connect these developments to NC for EO, highlighting the similarities between the two fields and elaborate on the potential of transferring compressed feature representations for machine--to--machine communication. Based on insights drawn from this review, we devise future directions relevant to applications in EO and ESM.

Multispectral to Hyperspectral using Pretrained Foundational model

Hyperspectral imaging provides detailed spectral information, offering significant potential for monitoring greenhouse gases like CH4 and NO2. However, its application is constrained by limited spatial coverage and infrequent revisit times. In contrast, multispectral imaging delivers broader spatial and temporal coverage but lacks the spectral granularity required for precise GHG detection. To address these challenges, this study proposes Spectral and Spatial-Spectral transformer models that reconstruct hyperspectral data from multispectral inputs. The models in this paper are pretrained on EnMAP and EMIT datasets and fine-tuned on spatio-temporally aligned (Sentinel-2, EnMAP) and (HLS-S30, EMIT) image pairs respectively. Our model has the potential to enhance atmospheric monitoring by combining the strengths of hyperspectral and multispectral imaging systems.

EarthDial: Turning Multi-sensory Earth Observations to Interactive Dialogues

Automated analysis of vast Earth observation data via interactive Vision-Language Models (VLMs) can unlock new opportunities for environmental monitoring, disaster response, and resource management. Existing generic VLMs do not perform well on Remote Sensing data, while the recent Geo-spatial VLMs remain restricted to a fixed resolution and few sensor modalities. In this paper, we introduce EarthDial, a conversational assistant specifically designed for Earth Observation (EO) data, transforming complex, multi-sensory Earth observations into interactive, natural language dialogues. EarthDial supports multi-spectral, multi-temporal, and multi-resolution imagery, enabling a wide range of remote sensing tasks, including classification, detection, captioning, question answering, visual reasoning, and visual grounding. To achieve this, we introduce an extensive instruction tuning dataset comprising over 11.11M instruction pairs covering RGB, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and multispectral modalities such as Near-Infrared (NIR) and infrared. Furthermore, EarthDial handles bi-temporal and multi-temporal sequence analysis for applications like change detection. Our extensive experimental results on 37 downstream applications demonstrate that EarthDial outperforms existing generic and domain-specific models, achieving better generalization across various EO tasks.

Prithvi-EO-2.0: A Versatile Multi-Temporal Foundation Model for Earth Observation Applications

This technical report presents Prithvi-EO-2.0, a new geospatial foundation model that offers significant improvements over its predecessor, Prithvi-EO-1.0. Trained on 4.2M global time series samples from NASA's Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 data archive at 30m resolution, the new 300M and 600M parameter models incorporate temporal and location embeddings for enhanced performance across various geospatial tasks. Through extensive benchmarking with GEO-Bench, the 600M version outperforms the previous Prithvi-EO model by 8\% across a range of tasks. It also outperforms six other geospatial foundation models when benchmarked on remote sensing tasks from different domains and resolutions (i.e. from 0.1m to 15m). The results demonstrate the versatility of the model in both classical earth observation and high-resolution applications. Early involvement of end-users and subject matter experts (SMEs) are among the key factors that contributed to the project's success. In particular, SME involvement allowed for constant feedback on model and dataset design, as well as successful customization for diverse SME-led applications in disaster response, land use and crop mapping, and ecosystem dynamics monitoring. Prithvi-EO-2.0 is available on Hugging Face and IBM terratorch, with additional resources on GitHub. The project exemplifies the Trusted Open Science approach embraced by all involved organizations.

GEOBench-VLM: Benchmarking Vision-Language Models for Geospatial Tasks

While numerous recent benchmarks focus on evaluating generic Vision-Language Models (VLMs), they fall short in addressing the unique demands of geospatial applications. Generic VLM benchmarks are not designed to handle the complexities of geospatial data, which is critical for applications such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, and disaster management. Some of the unique challenges in geospatial domain include temporal analysis for changes, counting objects in large quantities, detecting tiny objects, and understanding relationships between entities occurring in Remote Sensing imagery. To address this gap in the geospatial domain, we present GEOBench-VLM, a comprehensive benchmark specifically designed to evaluate VLMs on geospatial tasks, including scene understanding, object counting, localization, fine-grained categorization, and temporal analysis. Our benchmark features over 10,000 manually verified instructions and covers a diverse set of variations in visual conditions, object type, and scale. We evaluate several state-of-the-art VLMs to assess their accuracy within the geospatial context. The results indicate that although existing VLMs demonstrate potential, they face challenges when dealing with geospatial-specific examples, highlighting the room for further improvements. Specifically, the best-performing GPT4o achieves only 40\% accuracy on MCQs, which is only double the random guess performance. Our benchmark is publicly available at https://github.com/The-AI-Alliance/GEO-Bench-VLM .

Fine-tuning of Geospatial Foundation Models for Aboveground Biomass Estimation

Global vegetation structure mapping is critical for understanding the global carbon cycle and maximizing the efficacy of nature-based carbon sequestration initiatives. Moreover, vegetation structure mapping can help reduce the impacts of climate change by, for example, guiding actions to improve water security, increase biodiversity and reduce flood risk. Global satellite measurements provide an important set of observations for monitoring and managing deforestation and degradation of existing forests, natural forest regeneration, reforestation, biodiversity restoration, and the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices. In this paper, we explore the effectiveness of fine-tuning of a geospatial foundation model to estimate above-ground biomass (AGB) using space-borne data collected across different eco-regions in Brazil. The fine-tuned model architecture consisted of a Swin-B transformer as the encoder (i.e., backbone) and a single convolutional layer for the decoder head. All results were compared to a U-Net which was trained as the baseline model Experimental results of this sparse-label prediction task demonstrate that the fine-tuned geospatial foundation model with a frozen encoder has comparable performance to a U-Net trained from scratch. This is despite the fine-tuned model having 13 times less parameters requiring optimization, which saves both time and compute resources. Further, we explore the transfer-learning capabilities of the geospatial foundation models by fine-tuning on satellite imagery with sparse labels from different eco-regions in Brazil.

Variational Exploration Module VEM: A Cloud-Native Optimization and Validation Tool for Geospatial Modeling and AI Workflows

Geospatial observations combined with computational models have become key to understanding the physical systems of our environment and enable the design of best practices to reduce societal harm. Cloud-based deployments help to scale up these modeling and AI workflows. Yet, for practitioners to make robust conclusions, model tuning and testing is crucial, a resource intensive process which involves the variation of model input variables. We have developed the Variational Exploration Module which facilitates the optimization and validation of modeling workflows deployed in the cloud by orchestrating workflow executions and using Bayesian and machine learning-based methods to analyze model behavior. User configurations allow the combination of diverse sampling strategies in multi-agent environments. The flexibility and robustness of the model-agnostic module is demonstrated using real-world applications.

Foundation Models for Generalist Geospatial Artificial Intelligence

Significant progress in the development of highly adaptable and reusable Artificial Intelligence (AI) models is expected to have a significant impact on Earth science and remote sensing. Foundation models are pre-trained on large unlabeled datasets through self-supervision, and then fine-tuned for various downstream tasks with small labeled datasets. This paper introduces a first-of-a-kind framework for the efficient pre-training and fine-tuning of foundational models on extensive geospatial data. We have utilized this framework to create Prithvi, a transformer-based geospatial foundational model pre-trained on more than 1TB of multispectral satellite imagery from the Harmonized Landsat-Sentinel 2 (HLS) dataset. Our study demonstrates the efficacy of our framework in successfully fine-tuning Prithvi to a range of Earth observation tasks that have not been tackled by previous work on foundation models involving multi-temporal cloud gap imputation, flood mapping, wildfire scar segmentation, and multi-temporal crop segmentation. Our experiments show that the pre-trained model accelerates the fine-tuning process compared to leveraging randomly initialized weights. In addition, pre-trained Prithvi compares well against the state-of-the-art, e.g., outperforming a conditional GAN model in multi-temporal cloud imputation by up to 5pp (or 5.7%) in the structural similarity index. Finally, due to the limited availability of labeled data in the field of Earth observation, we gradually reduce the quantity of available labeled data for refining the model to evaluate data efficiency and demonstrate that data can be decreased significantly without affecting the model's accuracy. The pre-trained 100 million parameter model and corresponding fine-tuning workflows have been released publicly as open source contributions to the global Earth sciences community through Hugging Face.

Climate Impact Modelling Framework

The application of models to assess the risk of the physical impacts of weather and climate and their subsequent consequences for society and business is of the utmost importance in our changing climate. The operation of such models is historically bespoke and constrained to specific compute infrastructure, driving datasets and predefined configurations. These constraints introduce challenges with scaling model runs and putting the models in the hands of interested users. Here we present a cloud-based modular framework for the deployment and operation of geospatial models, initially applied to climate impacts. The Climate Impact Modelling Frameworks (CIMF) enables the deployment of modular workflows in a dynamic and flexible manner. Users can specify workflow components in a streamlined manner, these components can then be easily organised into different configurations to assess risk in different ways and at different scales. This also enables different models (physical simulation or machine learning models) and workflows to be connected to produce combined risk assessment. Flood modelling is used as an end-to-end example to demonstrate the operation of CIMF.