BRiTE: Bootstrapping Reinforced Thinking Process to Enhance Language Model Reasoning

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex reasoning tasks, yet generating reliable reasoning processes remains a significant challenge. We present a unified probabilistic framework that formalizes LLM reasoning through a novel graphical model incorporating latent thinking processes and evaluation signals. Within this framework, we introduce the Bootstrapping Reinforced Thinking Process (BRiTE) algorithm, which works in two steps. First, it generates high-quality rationales by approximating the optimal thinking process through reinforcement learning, using a novel reward shaping mechanism. Second, it enhances the base LLM by maximizing the joint probability of rationale generation with respect to the model's parameters. Theoretically, we demonstrate BRiTE's convergence at a rate of $1/T$ with $T$ representing the number of iterations. Empirical evaluations on math and coding benchmarks demonstrate that our approach consistently improves performance across different base models without requiring human-annotated thinking processes. In addition, BRiTE demonstrates superior performance compared to existing algorithms that bootstrap thinking processes use alternative methods such as rejection sampling, and can even match or exceed the results achieved through supervised fine-tuning with human-annotated data.

Are Transformers Able to Reason by Connecting Separated Knowledge in Training Data?

Humans exhibit remarkable compositional reasoning by integrating knowledge from various sources. For example, if someone learns ( B = f(A) ) from one source and ( C = g(B) ) from another, they can deduce ( C=g(B)=g(f(A)) ) even without encountering ( ABC ) together, showcasing the generalization ability of human intelligence. In this paper, we introduce a synthetic learning task, "FTCT" (Fragmented at Training, Chained at Testing), to validate the potential of Transformers in replicating this skill and interpret its inner mechanism. In the training phase, data consist of separated knowledge fragments from an overall causal graph. During testing, Transformers must infer complete causal graph traces by integrating these fragments. Our findings demonstrate that few-shot Chain-of-Thought prompting enables Transformers to perform compositional reasoning on FTCT by revealing correct combinations of fragments, even if such combinations were absent in the training data. Furthermore, the emergence of compositional reasoning ability is strongly correlated with the model complexity and training-testing data similarity. We propose, both theoretically and empirically, that Transformers learn an underlying generalizable program from training, enabling effective compositional reasoning during testing.

Hindsight Planner: A Closed-Loop Few-Shot Planner for Embodied Instruction Following

This work focuses on building a task planner for Embodied Instruction Following (EIF) using Large Language Models (LLMs). Previous works typically train a planner to imitate expert trajectories, treating this as a supervised task. While these methods achieve competitive performance, they often lack sufficient robustness. When a suboptimal action is taken, the planner may encounter an out-of-distribution state, which can lead to task failure. In contrast, we frame the task as a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) and aim to develop a robust planner under a few-shot assumption. Thus, we propose a closed-loop planner with an adaptation module and a novel hindsight method, aiming to use as much information as possible to assist the planner. Our experiments on the ALFRED dataset indicate that our planner achieves competitive performance under a few-shot assumption. For the first time, our few-shot agent's performance approaches and even surpasses that of the full-shot supervised agent.

An Instrumental Value for Data Production and its Application to Data Pricing

How much value does a dataset or a data production process have to an agent who wishes to use the data to assist decision-making? This is a fundamental question towards understanding the value of data as well as further pricing of data. This paper develops an approach for capturing the instrumental value of data production processes, which takes two key factors into account: (a) the context of the agent's decision-making problem; (b) prior data or information the agent already possesses. We ''micro-found'' our valuation concepts by showing how they connect to classic notions of information design and signals in information economics. When instantiated in the domain of Bayesian linear regression, our value naturally corresponds to information gain. Based on our designed data value, we then study a basic monopoly pricing setting with a buyer looking to purchase from a seller some labeled data of a certain feature direction in order to improve a Bayesian regression model. We show that when the seller has the ability to fully customize any data request, she can extract the first-best revenue (i.e., full surplus) from any population of buyers, i.e., achieving first-degree price discrimination. If the seller can only sell data that are derived from an existing data pool, this limits her ability to customize, and achieving first-best revenue becomes generally impossible. However, we design a mechanism that achieves seller revenue at most $\log (\kappa)$ less than the first-best revenue, where $\kappa$ is the condition number associated with the data matrix. A corollary of this result is that the seller can extract the first-best revenue in the multi-armed bandits special case.

DSTC: Direct Preference Learning with Only Self-Generated Tests and Code to Improve Code LMs

Direct preference learning offers a promising and computation-efficient beyond supervised fine-tuning (SFT) for improving code generation in coding large language models (LMs). However, the scarcity of reliable preference data is a bottleneck for the performance of direct preference learning to improve the coding accuracy of code LMs. In this paper, we introduce \underline{\textbf{D}}irect Preference Learning with Only \underline{\textbf{S}}elf-Generated \underline{\textbf{T}}ests and \underline{\textbf{C}}ode (DSTC), a framework that leverages only self-generated code snippets and tests to construct reliable preference pairs such that direct preference learning can improve LM coding accuracy without external annotations. DSTC combines a minimax selection process and test-code concatenation to improve preference pair quality, reducing the influence of incorrect self-generated tests and enhancing model performance without the need for costly reward models. When applied with direct preference learning methods such as Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) and Kahneman-Tversky Optimization (KTO), DSTC yields stable improvements in coding accuracy (pass@1 score) across diverse coding benchmarks, including HumanEval, MBPP, and BigCodeBench, demonstrating both its effectiveness and scalability for models of various sizes. This approach autonomously enhances code generation accuracy across LLMs of varying sizes, reducing reliance on expensive annotated coding datasets.

Language-Model-Assisted Bi-Level Programming for Reward Learning from Internet Videos

Learning from Demonstrations, particularly from biological experts like humans and animals, often encounters significant data acquisition challenges. While recent approaches leverage internet videos for learning, they require complex, task-specific pipelines to extract and retarget motion data for the agent. In this work, we introduce a language-model-assisted bi-level programming framework that enables a reinforcement learning agent to directly learn its reward from internet videos, bypassing dedicated data preparation. The framework includes two levels: an upper level where a vision-language model (VLM) provides feedback by comparing the learner's behavior with expert videos, and a lower level where a large language model (LLM) translates this feedback into reward updates. The VLM and LLM collaborate within this bi-level framework, using a "chain rule" approach to derive a valid search direction for reward learning. We validate the method for reward learning from YouTube videos, and the results have shown that the proposed method enables efficient reward design from expert videos of biological agents for complex behavior synthesis.

Reward-Augmented Data Enhances Direct Preference Alignment of LLMs

Preference alignment in Large Language Models (LLMs) has significantly improved their ability to adhere to human instructions and intentions. However, existing direct alignment algorithms primarily focus on relative preferences and often overlook the qualitative aspects of responses. Striving to maximize the implicit reward gap between the chosen and the slightly inferior rejected responses can cause overfitting and unnecessary unlearning of the high-quality rejected responses. The unawareness of the reward scores also drives the LLM to indiscriminately favor the low-quality chosen responses and fail to generalize to responses with the highest rewards, which are sparse in data. To overcome these shortcomings, our study introduces reward-conditioned LLM policies that discern and learn from the entire spectrum of response quality within the dataset, helping extrapolate to more optimal regions. We propose an effective yet simple data relabeling method that conditions the preference pairs on quality scores to construct a reward-augmented dataset. This dataset is easily integrated with existing direct alignment algorithms and is applicable to any preference dataset. The experimental results across instruction-following benchmarks including AlpacaEval, MT-Bench, and Arena-Hard-Auto demonstrate that our approach consistently boosts the performance of DPO by a considerable margin across diverse models. Additionally, our method improves the average accuracy on various academic benchmarks. When applying our method to on-policy data, the resulting DPO model achieves SOTA results on AlpacaEval. Through ablation studies, we demonstrate that our method not only maximizes the utility of preference data but also mitigates the issue of unlearning, demonstrating its broad effectiveness beyond mere dataset expansion. Our code is available at https://github.com/shenao-zhang/reward-augmented-preference.

Just say what you want: only-prompting self-rewarding online preference optimization

We address the challenge of online Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) with a focus on self-rewarding alignment methods. In online RLHF, obtaining feedback requires interaction with the environment, which can be costly when using additional reward models or the GPT-4 API. Current self-rewarding approaches rely heavily on the discriminator's judgment capabilities, which are effective for large-scale models but challenging to transfer to smaller ones. To address these limitations, we propose a novel, only-prompting self-rewarding online algorithm that generates preference datasets without relying on judgment capabilities. Additionally, we employ fine-grained arithmetic control over the optimality gap between positive and negative examples, generating more hard negatives in the later stages of training to help the model better capture subtle human preferences. Finally, we conduct extensive experiments on two base models, Mistral-7B and Mistral-Instruct-7B, which significantly bootstrap the performance of the reference model, achieving 34.5% in the Length-controlled Win Rates of AlpacaEval 2.0.

Safe MPC Alignment with Human Directional Feedback

In safety-critical robot planning or control, manually specifying safety constraints or learning them from demonstrations can be challenging. In this paper, we propose a certifiable alignment method for a robot to learn a safety constraint in its model predictive control (MPC) policy with human online directional feedback. To our knowledge, it is the first method to learn safety constraints from human feedback. The proposed method is based on an empirical observation: human directional feedback, when available, tends to guide the robot toward safer regions. The method only requires the direction of human feedback to update the learning hypothesis space. It is certifiable, providing an upper bound on the total number of human feedback in the case of successful learning of safety constraints, or declaring the misspecification of the hypothesis space, i.e., the true implicit safety constraint cannot be found within the specified hypothesis space. We evaluated the proposed method using numerical examples and user studies in two developed simulation games. Additionally, we implemented and tested the proposed method on a real-world Franka robot arm performing mobile water-pouring tasks in a user study. The simulation and experimental results demonstrate the efficacy and efficiency of our method, showing that it enables a robot to successfully learn safety constraints with a small handful (tens) of human directional corrections.

Toward Optimal LLM Alignments Using Two-Player Games

The standard Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF) framework primarily focuses on optimizing the performance of large language models using pre-collected prompts. However, collecting prompts that provide comprehensive coverage is both tedious and challenging, and often fails to include scenarios that LLMs need to improve on the most. In this paper, we investigate alignment through the lens of two-agent games, involving iterative interactions between an adversarial and a defensive agent. The adversarial agent's task at each step is to generate prompts that expose the weakness of the defensive agent. In return, the defensive agent seeks to improve its responses to these newly identified prompts it struggled with, based on feedback from the reward model. We theoretically demonstrate that this iterative reinforcement learning optimization converges to a Nash Equilibrium for the game induced by the agents. Experimental results in safety scenarios demonstrate that learning in such a competitive environment not only fully trains agents but also leads to policies with enhanced generalization capabilities for both adversarial and defensive agents.