LLMs-as-Judges: A Comprehensive Survey on LLM-based Evaluation Methods

The rapid advancement of Large Language Models (LLMs) has driven their expanding application across various fields. One of the most promising applications is their role as evaluators based on natural language responses, referred to as ''LLMs-as-judges''. This framework has attracted growing attention from both academia and industry due to their excellent effectiveness, ability to generalize across tasks, and interpretability in the form of natural language. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of the LLMs-as-judges paradigm from five key perspectives: Functionality, Methodology, Applications, Meta-evaluation, and Limitations. We begin by providing a systematic definition of LLMs-as-Judges and introduce their functionality (Why use LLM judges?). Then we address methodology to construct an evaluation system with LLMs (How to use LLM judges?). Additionally, we investigate the potential domains for their application (Where to use LLM judges?) and discuss methods for evaluating them in various contexts (How to evaluate LLM judges?). Finally, we provide a detailed analysis of the limitations of LLM judges and discuss potential future directions. Through a structured and comprehensive analysis, we aim aims to provide insights on the development and application of LLMs-as-judges in both research and practice. We will continue to maintain the relevant resource list at https://github.com/CSHaitao/Awesome-LLMs-as-Judges.

CalibraEval: Calibrating Prediction Distribution to Mitigate Selection Bias in LLMs-as-Judges

The use of large language models (LLMs) as automated evaluation tools to assess the quality of generated natural language, known as LLMs-as-Judges, has demonstrated promising capabilities and is rapidly gaining widespread attention. However, when applied to pairwise comparisons of candidate responses, LLM-based evaluators often exhibit selection bias. Specifically, their judgments may become inconsistent when the option positions or ID tokens are swapped, compromising the effectiveness and fairness of the evaluation result. To address this challenge, we introduce CalibraEval, a novel label-free method for mitigating selection bias during inference. Specifically, CalibraEval reformulates debiasing as an optimization task aimed at adjusting observed prediction distributions to align with unbiased prediction distributions. To solve this optimization problem, we propose a non-parametric order-preserving algorithm (NOA). This algorithm leverages the partial order relationships between model prediction distributions, thereby eliminating the need for explicit labels and precise mathematical function modeling.Empirical evaluations of LLMs in multiple representative benchmarks demonstrate that CalibraEval effectively mitigates selection bias and improves performance compared to existing debiasing methods. This work marks a step toward building more robust and unbiased automated evaluation frameworks, paving the way for improved reliability in AI-driven assessments

DELTA: Pre-train a Discriminative Encoder for Legal Case Retrieval via Structural Word Alignment

Recent research demonstrates the effectiveness of using pre-trained language models for legal case retrieval. Most of the existing works focus on improving the representation ability for the contextualized embedding of the [CLS] token and calculate relevance using textual semantic similarity. However, in the legal domain, textual semantic similarity does not always imply that the cases are relevant enough. Instead, relevance in legal cases primarily depends on the similarity of key facts that impact the final judgment. Without proper treatments, the discriminative ability of learned representations could be limited since legal cases are lengthy and contain numerous non-key facts. To this end, we introduce DELTA, a discriminative model designed for legal case retrieval. The basic idea involves pinpointing key facts in legal cases and pulling the contextualized embedding of the [CLS] token closer to the key facts while pushing away from the non-key facts, which can warm up the case embedding space in an unsupervised manner. To be specific, this study brings the word alignment mechanism to the contextual masked auto-encoder. First, we leverage shallow decoders to create information bottlenecks, aiming to enhance the representation ability. Second, we employ the deep decoder to enable translation between different structures, with the goal of pinpointing key facts to enhance discriminative ability. Comprehensive experiments conducted on publicly available legal benchmarks show that our approach can outperform existing state-of-the-art methods in legal case retrieval. It provides a new perspective on the in-depth understanding and processing of legal case documents.

BLADE: Enhancing Black-box Large Language Models with Small Domain-Specific Models

Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT and GPT-4 are versatile and capable of addressing a diverse range of tasks. However, general LLMs, which are developed on open-domain data, may lack the domain-specific knowledge essential for tasks in vertical domains, such as legal, medical, etc. To address this issue, previous approaches either conduct continuous pre-training with domain-specific data or employ retrieval augmentation to support general LLMs. Unfortunately, these strategies are either cost-intensive or unreliable in practical applications. To this end, we present a novel framework named BLADE, which enhances Black-box LArge language models with small Domain-spEcific models. BLADE consists of a black-box LLM and a small domain-specific LM. The small LM preserves domain-specific knowledge and offers specialized insights, while the general LLM contributes robust language comprehension and reasoning capabilities. Specifically, our method involves three steps: 1) pre-training the small LM with domain-specific data, 2) fine-tuning this model using knowledge instruction data, and 3) joint Bayesian optimization of the general LLM and the small LM. Extensive experiments conducted on public legal and medical benchmarks reveal that BLADE significantly outperforms existing approaches. This shows the potential of BLADE as an effective and cost-efficient solution in adapting general LLMs for vertical domains.

Aligning the Capabilities of Large Language Models with the Context of Information Retrieval via Contrastive Feedback

Information Retrieval (IR), the process of finding information to satisfy user's information needs, plays an essential role in modern people's lives. Recently, large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across various tasks, some of which are important for IR. Nonetheless, LLMs frequently confront the issue of generating responses that lack specificity. This has limited the overall effectiveness of LLMs for IR in many cases. To address these issues, we present an unsupervised alignment framework called Reinforcement Learning from Contrastive Feedback (RLCF), which empowers LLMs to generate both high-quality and context-specific responses that suit the needs of IR tasks. Specifically, we construct contrastive feedback by comparing each document with its similar documents, and then propose a reward function named Batched-MRR to teach LLMs to generate responses that captures the fine-grained information that distinguish documents from their similar ones. To demonstrate the effectiveness of RLCF, we conducted experiments in two typical applications of LLMs in IR, i.e., data augmentation and summarization. The experimental results show that RLCF can effectively improve the performance of LLMs in IR context.

I^3 Retriever: Incorporating Implicit Interaction in Pre-trained Language Models for Passage Retrieval

Passage retrieval is a fundamental task in many information systems, such as web search and question answering, where both efficiency and effectiveness are critical concerns. In recent years, neural retrievers based on pre-trained language models (PLM), such as dual-encoders, have achieved huge success. Yet, studies have found that the performance of dual-encoders are often limited due to the neglecting of the interaction information between queries and candidate passages. Therefore, various interaction paradigms have been proposed to improve the performance of vanilla dual-encoders. Particularly, recent state-of-the-art methods often introduce late-interaction during the model inference process. However, such late-interaction based methods usually bring extensive computation and storage cost on large corpus. Despite their effectiveness, the concern of efficiency and space footprint is still an important factor that limits the application of interaction-based neural retrieval models. To tackle this issue, we incorporate implicit interaction into dual-encoders, and propose I^3 retriever. In particular, our implicit interaction paradigm leverages generated pseudo-queries to simulate query-passage interaction, which jointly optimizes with query and passage encoders in an end-to-end manner. It can be fully pre-computed and cached, and its inference process only involves simple dot product operation of the query vector and passage vector, which makes it as efficient as the vanilla dual encoders. We conduct comprehensive experiments on MSMARCO and TREC2019 Deep Learning Datasets, demonstrating the I^3 retriever's superiority in terms of both effectiveness and efficiency. Moreover, the proposed implicit interaction is compatible with special pre-training and knowledge distillation for passage retrieval, which brings a new state-of-the-art performance.

SAILER: Structure-aware Pre-trained Language Model for Legal Case Retrieval

Legal case retrieval, which aims to find relevant cases for a query case, plays a core role in the intelligent legal system. Despite the success that pre-training has achieved in ad-hoc retrieval tasks, effective pre-training strategies for legal case retrieval remain to be explored. Compared with general documents, legal case documents are typically long text sequences with intrinsic logical structures. However, most existing language models have difficulty understanding the long-distance dependencies between different structures. Moreover, in contrast to the general retrieval, the relevance in the legal domain is sensitive to key legal elements. Even subtle differences in key legal elements can significantly affect the judgement of relevance. However, existing pre-trained language models designed for general purposes have not been equipped to handle legal elements. To address these issues, in this paper, we propose SAILER, a new Structure-Aware pre-traIned language model for LEgal case Retrieval. It is highlighted in the following three aspects: (1) SAILER fully utilizes the structural information contained in legal case documents and pays more attention to key legal elements, similar to how legal experts browse legal case documents. (2) SAILER employs an asymmetric encoder-decoder architecture to integrate several different pre-training objectives. In this way, rich semantic information across tasks is encoded into dense vectors. (3) SAILER has powerful discriminative ability, even without any legal annotation data. It can distinguish legal cases with different charges accurately. Extensive experiments over publicly available legal benchmarks demonstrate that our approach can significantly outperform previous state-of-the-art methods in legal case retrieval.

T2Ranking: A large-scale Chinese Benchmark for Passage Ranking

Passage ranking involves two stages: passage retrieval and passage re-ranking, which are important and challenging topics for both academics and industries in the area of Information Retrieval (IR). However, the commonly-used datasets for passage ranking usually focus on the English language. For non-English scenarios, such as Chinese, the existing datasets are limited in terms of data scale, fine-grained relevance annotation and false negative issues. To address this problem, we introduce T2Ranking, a large-scale Chinese benchmark for passage ranking. T2Ranking comprises more than 300K queries and over 2M unique passages from real-world search engines. Expert annotators are recruited to provide 4-level graded relevance scores (fine-grained) for query-passage pairs instead of binary relevance judgments (coarse-grained). To ease the false negative issues, more passages with higher diversities are considered when performing relevance annotations, especially in the test set, to ensure a more accurate evaluation. Apart from the textual query and passage data, other auxiliary resources are also provided, such as query types and XML files of documents which passages are generated from, to facilitate further studies. To evaluate the dataset, commonly used ranking models are implemented and tested on T2Ranking as baselines. The experimental results show that T2Ranking is challenging and there is still scope for improvement. The full data and all codes are available at https://github.com/THUIR/T2Ranking/

Social4Rec: Distilling User Preference from Social Graph for Video Recommendation in Tencent

Despite recommender systems play a key role in network content platforms, mining the user's interests is still a significant challenge. Existing works predict the user interest by utilizing user behaviors, i.e., clicks, views, etc., but current solutions are ineffective when users perform unsettled activities. The latter ones involve new users, which have few activities of any kind, and sparse users who have low-frequency behaviors. We uniformly describe both these user-types as "cold users", which are very common but often neglected in network content platforms. To address this issue, we enhance the representation of the user interest by combining his social interest, e.g., friendship, following bloggers, interest groups, etc., with the activity behaviors. Thus, in this work, we present a novel algorithm entitled SocialNet, which adopts a two-stage method to progressively extract the coarse-grained and fine-grained social interest. Our technique then concatenates SocialNet's output with the original user representation to get the final user representation that combines behavior interests and social interests. Offline experiments on Tencent video's recommender system demonstrate the superiority over the baseline behavior-based model. The online experiment also shows a significant performance improvement in clicks and view time in the real-world recommendation system. The source code is available at https://github.com/Social4Rec/SocialNet.

Layout-aware Webpage Quality Assessment

Identifying high-quality webpages is fundamental for real-world search engines, which can fulfil users' information need with the less cognitive burden. Early studies of \emph{webpage quality assessment} usually design hand-crafted features that may only work on particular categories of webpages (e.g., shopping websites, medical websites). They can hardly be applied to real-world search engines that serve trillions of webpages with various types and purposes. In this paper, we propose a novel layout-aware webpage quality assessment model currently deployed in our search engine. Intuitively, layout is a universal and critical dimension for the quality assessment of different categories of webpages. Based on this, we directly employ the meta-data that describes a webpage, i.e., Document Object Model (DOM) tree, as the input of our model. The DOM tree data unifies the representation of webpages with different categories and purposes and indicates the layout of webpages. To assess webpage quality from complex DOM tree data, we propose a graph neural network (GNN) based method that extracts rich layout-aware information that implies webpage quality in an end-to-end manner. Moreover, we improve the GNN method with an attentive readout function, external web categories and a category-aware sampling method. We conduct rigorous offline and online experiments to show that our proposed solution is effective in real search engines, improving the overall usability and user experience.