Adaptive Simulation Experiment for LLM Policy Optimization

Large language models (LLMs) have significant potential to improve operational efficiency in operations management. Deploying these models requires specifying a policy that governs response quality, shapes user experience, and influences operational value. In this research, we treat LLMs as stochastic simulators and propose a pairwise comparison-based adaptive simulation experiment framework for identifying the optimal policy from a finite set of candidates. We consider two policy spaces: an unstructured space with no parametric assumption, and a structured space in which the data are generated from a preference model. For both settings, we characterize the fundamental data requirements for identifying the optimal policy with high probability. In the unstructured case, we derive a closed-form expression for the optimal sampling proportions, together with a clear operational interpretation. In the structured case, we formulate a regularized convex program to compute the optimal proportions. We then develop an adaptive experimental procedure, termed LLM-PO, for both policy spaces, and prove that it identifies the optimal policy with the desired statistical guarantee while asymptotically attaining the fundamental data requirements. Numerical experiments demonstrate that LLM-PO consistently outperforms benchmark methods and improves LLM performance.

Unified Precision-Guaranteed Stopping Rules for Contextual Learning

Contextual learning seeks to learn a decision policy that maps an individual's characteristics to an action through data collection. In operations management, such data may come from various sources, and a central question is when data collection can stop while still guaranteeing that the learned policy is sufficiently accurate. We study this question under two precision criteria: a context-wise criterion and an aggregate policy-value criterion. We develop unified stopping rules for contextual learning with unknown sampling variances in both unstructured and structured linear settings. Our approach is based on generalized likelihood ratio (GLR) statistics for pairwise action comparisons. To calibrate the corresponding sequential boundaries, we derive new time-uniform deviation inequalities that directly control the self-normalized GLR evidence and thus avoid the conservativeness caused by decoupling mean and variance uncertainty. Under the Gaussian sampling model, we establish finite-sample precision guarantees for both criteria. Numerical experiments on synthetic instances and two case studies demonstrate that the proposed stopping rules achieve the target precision with substantially fewer samples than benchmark methods. The proposed framework provides a practical way to determine when enough information has been collected in personalized decision problems. It applies across multiple data-collection environments, including historical datasets, simulation models, and real systems, enabling practitioners to reduce unnecessary sampling while maintaining a desired level of decision quality.

DSBD: Dual-Aligned Structural Basis Distillation for Graph Domain Adaptation

Graph domain adaptation (GDA) aims to transfer knowledge from a labeled source graph to an unlabeled target graph under distribution shifts. However, existing methods are largely feature-centric and overlook structural discrepancies, which become particularly detrimental under significant topology shifts. Such discrepancies alter both geometric relationships and spectral properties, leading to unreliable transfer of graph neural networks (GNNs). To address this limitation, we propose Dual-Aligned Structural Basis Distillation (DSBD) for GDA, a novel framework that explicitly models and adapts cross-domain structural variation. DSBD constructs a differentiable structural basis by synthesizing continuous probabilistic prototype graphs, enabling gradient-based optimization over graph topology. The basis is learned under source-domain supervision to preserve semantic discriminability, while being explicitly aligned to the target domain through a dual-alignment objective. Specifically, geometric consistency is enforced via permutation-invariant topological moment matching, and spectral consistency is achieved through Dirichlet energy calibration, jointly capturing structural characteristics across domains. Furthermore, we introduce a decoupled inference paradigm that mitigates source-specific structural bias by training a new GNN on the distilled structural basis. Extensive experiments on graph and image benchmarks demonstrate that DSBD consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods.

On the Reliability Limits of LLM-Based Multi-Agent Planning

This technical note studies the reliability limits of LLM-based multi-agent planning as a delegated decision problem. We model the LLM-based multi-agent architecture as a finite acyclic decision network in which multiple stages process shared model-context information, communicate through language interfaces with limited capacity, and may invoke human review. We show that, without new exogenous signals, any delegated network is decision-theoretically dominated by a centralized Bayes decision maker with access to the same information. In the common-evidence regime, this implies that optimizing over multi-agent directed acyclic graphs under a finite communication budget can be recast as choosing a budget-constrained stochastic experiment on the shared signal. We also characterize the loss induced by communication and information compression. Under proper scoring rules, the gap between the centralized Bayes value and the value after communication admits an expected posterior divergence representation, which reduces to conditional mutual information under logarithmic loss and to expected squared posterior error under the Brier score. These results characterize the fundamental reliability limits of delegated LLM planning. Experiments with LLMs on a controlled problem set further demonstrate these characterizations.

Designing Service Systems from Textual Evidence

Designing service systems requires selecting among alternative configurations -- choosing the best chatbot variant, the optimal routing policy, or the most effective quality control procedure. In many service systems, the primary evidence of performance quality is textual -- customer support transcripts, complaint narratives, compliance review reports -- rather than the scalar measurements assumed by classical optimization methods. Large language models (LLMs) can read such textual evidence and produce standardized quality scores, but these automated judges exhibit systematic biases that vary across alternatives and evaluation instances. Human expert review remains accurate but costly. We study how to identify the best service configuration with high confidence while minimizing expensive human audits, given that automated evaluation is cheap but biased. We formalize this as a sequential decision problem where a biased proxy score is observed for every evaluation, and a verified outcome can be acquired selectively at additional cost. We prove that LLM-only selection fails under arm-dependent bias, and that naive selective-audit estimators can be asymptotically biased. We develop an estimator combining proxy scores with inverse-propensity-weighted residuals and construct anytime-valid confidence sequences. Our algorithm, PP-LUCB, jointly decides which alternatives to evaluate and whether to request human audits, concentrating reviews where the LLM judge is least reliable. We prove correctness and establish instance-dependent cost bounds showing near-optimal efficiency. On a customer support ticket classification task, our algorithm correctly identifies the best model in 40/40 trials while achieving 90\% audit cost reduction.

Model-based Offline RL via Robust Value-Aware Model Learning with Implicitly Differentiable Adaptive Weighting

Model-based offline reinforcement learning (RL) aims to enhance offline RL with a dynamics model that facilitates policy exploration. However, \textit{model exploitation} could occur due to inevitable model errors, degrading algorithm performance. Adversarial model learning offers a theoretical framework to mitigate model exploitation by solving a maximin formulation. Within such a paradigm, RAMBO~\citep{rigter2022rambo} has emerged as a representative and most popular method that provides a practical implementation with model gradient. However, we empirically reveal that severe Q-value underestimation and gradient explosion can occur in RAMBO with only slight hyperparameter tuning, suggesting that it tends to be overly conservative and suffers from unstable model updates. To address these issues, we propose \textbf{RO}bust value-aware \textbf{M}odel learning with \textbf{I}mplicitly differentiable adaptive weighting (ROMI). Instead of updating the dynamics model with model gradient, ROMI introduces a novel robust value-aware model learning approach. This approach requires the dynamics model to predict future states with values close to the minimum Q-value within a scale-adjustable state uncertainty set, enabling controllable conservatism and stable model updates. To further improve out-of-distribution (OOD) generalization during multi-step rollouts, we propose implicitly differentiable adaptive weighting, a bi-level optimization scheme that adaptively achieves dynamics- and value-aware model learning. Empirical results on D4RL and NeoRL datasets show that ROMI significantly outperforms RAMBO and achieves competitive or superior performance compared to other state-of-the-art methods on datasets where RAMBO typically underperforms. Code is available at https://github.com/zq2r/ROMI.git.

SkillCraft: Can LLM Agents Learn to Use Tools Skillfully?

Real-world tool-using agents operate over long-horizon workflows with recurring structure and diverse demands, where effective behavior requires not only invoking atomic tools but also abstracting, and reusing higher-level tool compositions. However, existing benchmarks mainly measure instance-level success under static tool sets, offering limited insight into agents' ability to acquire such reusable skills. We address this gap by introducing SkillCraft, a benchmark explicitly stress-test agent ability to form and reuse higher-level tool compositions, where we call Skills. SkillCraft features realistic, highly compositional tool-use scenarios with difficulty scaled along both quantitative and structural dimensions, designed to elicit skill abstraction and cross-task reuse. We further propose a lightweight evaluation protocol that enables agents to auto-compose atomic tools into executable Skills, cache and reuse them inside and across tasks, thereby improving efficiency while accumulating a persistent library of reusable skills. Evaluating state-of-the-art agents on SkillCraft, we observe substantial efficiency gains, with token usage reduced by up to 80% by skill saving and reuse. Moreover, success rate strongly correlates with tool composition ability at test time, underscoring compositional skill acquisition as a core capability.

USBD: Universal Structural Basis Distillation for Source-Free Graph Domain Adaptation

SF-GDA is pivotal for privacy-preserving knowledge transfer across graph datasets. Although recent works incorporate structural information, they implicitly condition adaptation on the smoothness priors of sourcetrained GNNs, thereby limiting their generalization to structurally distinct targets. This dependency becomes a critical bottleneck under significant topological shifts, where the source model misinterprets distinct topological patterns unseen in the source domain as noise, rendering pseudo-label-based adaptation unreliable. To overcome this limitation, we propose the Universal Structural Basis Distillation, a framework that shifts the paradigm from adapting a biased model to learning a universal structural basis for SF-GDA. Instead of adapting a biased source model to a specific target, our core idea is to construct a structure-agnostic basis that proactively covers the full spectrum of potential topological patterns. Specifically, USBD employs a bi-level optimization framework to distill the source dataset into a compact structural basis. By enforcing the prototypes to span the full Dirichlet energy spectrum, the learned basis explicitly captures diverse topological motifs, ranging from low-frequency clusters to high-frequency chains, beyond those present in the source. This ensures that the learned basis creates a comprehensive structural covering capable of handling targets with disparate structures. For inference, we introduce a spectral-aware ensemble mechanism that dynamically activates the optimal prototype combination based on the spectral fingerprint of the target graph. Extensive experiments on benchmarks demonstrate that USBD significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods, particularly in scenarios with severe structural shifts, while achieving superior computational efficiency by decoupling the adaptation cost from the target data scale.

Riemannian Flow Matching for Disentangled Graph Domain Adaptation

Graph Domain Adaptation (GDA) typically uses adversarial learning to align graph embeddings in Euclidean space. However, this paradigm suffers from two critical challenges: Structural Degeneration, where hierarchical and semantic representations are entangled, and Optimization Instability, which arises from oscillatory dynamics of minimax adversarial training. To tackle these issues, we propose DisRFM, a geometry-aware GDA framework that unifies Riemannian embedding and flow-based transport. First, to overcome structural degeneration, we embed graphs into a Riemannian manifold. By adopting polar coordinates, we explicitly disentangle structure (radius) from semantics (angle). Then, we enforce topology preservation through radial Wasserstein alignment and semantic discrimination via angular clustering, thereby preventing feature entanglement and collapse. Second, we address the instability of adversarial alignment by using Riemannian flow matching. This method learns a smooth vector field to guide source features toward the target along geodesic paths, guaranteeing stable convergence. The geometric constraints further guide the flow to maintain the disentangled structure during transport. Theoretically, we prove the asymptotic stability of the flow matching and derive a tighter bound for the target risk. Extensive experiments demonstrate that DisRFM consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods.

Best Arm Identification with LLM Judges and Limited Human

We study fixed-confidence best-arm identification (BAI) where a cheap but potentially biased proxy (e.g., LLM judge) is available for every sample, while an expensive ground-truth label can only be acquired selectively when using a human for auditing. Unlike classical multi-fidelity BAI, the proxy is biased (arm- and context-dependent) and ground truth is selectively observed. Consequently, standard multi-fidelity methods can mis-select the best arm, and uniform auditing, though accurate, wastes scarce resources and is inefficient. We prove that without bias correction and propensity adjustment, mis-selection probability may not vanish (even with unlimited proxy data). We then develop an estimator for the mean of each arm that combines proxy scores with inverse-propensity-weighted residuals and form anytime-valid confidence sequences for that estimator. Based on the estimator and confidence sequence, we propose an algorithm that adaptively selects and audits arms. The algorithm concentrates audits on unreliable contexts and close arms and we prove that a plug-in Neyman rule achieves near-oracle audit efficiency. Numerical experiments confirm the theoretical guarantees and demonstrate the superior empirical performance of the proposed algorithm.