Spatial-Spectral Morphological Mamba for Hyperspectral Image Classification

In recent years, Transformers have garnered significant attention for Hyperspectral Image Classification (HSIC) due to their self-attention mechanism, which provides strong classification performance. However, these models face major challenges in computational efficiency, as their complexity increases quadratically with the sequence length. The Mamba architecture, leveraging a State Space Model, offers a more efficient alternative to Transformers. This paper introduces the Spatial-Spectral Morphological Mamba (MorpMamba) model. In the MorpMamba model, a token generation module first converts the Hyperspectral Image (HSI) patch into spatial-spectral tokens. These tokens are then processed by a morphology block, which computes structural and shape information using depthwise separable convolutional operations. The extracted information is enhanced in a feature enhancement module that adjusts the spatial and spectral tokens based on the center region of the HSI sample, allowing for effective information fusion within each block. Subsequently, the tokens are refined in a multi-head self-attention block to further improve the feature space. Finally, the combined information is fed into the state space block for classification and the creation of the ground truth map. Experiments on widely used Hyperspectral (HS) datasets demonstrate that the MorpMamba model outperforms (parametric efficiency) both CNN and Transformer models.

A Comprehensive Survey for Hyperspectral Image Classification: The Evolution from Conventional to Transformers

Hyperspectral Image Classification (HSC) is a challenging task due to the high dimensionality and complex nature of Hyperspectral (HS) data. Traditional Machine Learning approaches while effective, face challenges in real-world data due to varying optimal feature sets, subjectivity in human-driven design, biases, and limitations. Traditional approaches encounter the curse of dimensionality, struggle with feature selection and extraction, lack spatial information consideration, exhibit limited robustness to noise, face scalability issues, and may not adapt well to complex data distributions. In recent years, Deep Learning (DL) techniques have emerged as powerful tools for addressing these challenges. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of the current trends and future prospects in HSC, focusing on the advancements from DL models to the emerging use of Transformers. We review the key concepts, methodologies, and state-of-the-art approaches in DL for HSC. We explore the potential of Transformer-based models in HSC, outlining their benefits and challenges. We also delve into emerging trends in HSC, as well as thorough discussions on Explainable AI and Interoperability concepts along with Diffusion Models (image denoising, feature extraction, and image fusion). Lastly, we address several open challenges and research questions pertinent to HSC. Comprehensive experimental results have been undertaken using three HS datasets to verify the efficacy of various conventional DL models and Transformers. Finally, we outline future research directions and potential applications that can further enhance the accuracy and efficiency of HSC. The Source code is available at \href{https://github.com/mahmad00/Conventional-to-Transformer-for-Hyperspectral-Image-Classification-Survey-2024}{github.com/mahmad00}.

Traditional to Transformers: A Survey on Current Trends and Future Prospects for Hyperspectral Image Classification

Hyperspectral image classification is a challenging task due to the high dimensionality and complex nature of hyperspectral data. In recent years, deep learning techniques have emerged as powerful tools for addressing these challenges. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of the current trends and future prospects in hyperspectral image classification, focusing on the advancements from deep learning models to the emerging use of transformers. We review the key concepts, methodologies, and state-of-the-art approaches in deep learning for hyperspectral image classification. Additionally, we discuss the potential of transformer-based models in this field and highlight the advantages and challenges associated with these approaches. Comprehensive experimental results have been undertaken using three Hyperspectral datasets to verify the efficacy of various conventional deep-learning models and Transformers. Finally, we outline future research directions and potential applications that can further enhance the accuracy and efficiency of hyperspectral image classification. The Source code is available at https://github.com/mahmad00/Conventional-to-Transformer-for-Hyperspectral-Image-Classification-Survey-2024.

Low Rank Properties for Estimating Microphones Start Time and Sources Emission Time

Uncertainty in timing information pertaining to the start time of microphone recordings and sources' emission time pose significant challenges in various applications, such as joint microphones and sources localization. Traditional optimization methods, which directly estimate this unknown timing information (UTIm), often fall short compared to approaches exploiting the low-rank property (LRP). LRP encompasses an additional low-rank structure, facilitating a linear constraint on UTIm to help formulate related low-rank structure information. This method allows us to attain globally optimal solutions for UTIm, given proper initialization. However, the initialization process often involves randomness, leading to suboptimal, local minimum values. This paper presents a novel, combined low-rank approximation (CLRA) method designed to mitigate the effects of this random initialization. We introduce three new LRP variants, underpinned by mathematical proof, which allow the UTIm to draw on a richer pool of low-rank structural information. Utilizing this augmented low-rank structural information from both LRP and the proposed variants, we formulate four linear constraints on the UTIm. Employing the proposed CLRA algorithm, we derive global optimal solutions for the UTIm via these four linear constraints.Experimental results highlight the superior performance of our method over existing state-of-the-art approaches, measured in terms of both the recovery number and reduced estimation errors of UTIm.

Are Microphone Signals Alone Sufficient for Joint Microphones and Sources Localization?

Joint microphones and sources localization can be achieved by using both time of arrival (TOA) and time difference of arrival (TDOA) measurements, even in scenarios where both microphones and sources are asynchronous due to unknown emission time of human voices or sources and unknown recording start time of independent microphones. However, TOA measurements require both microphone signals and the waveform of source signals while TDOA measurements can be obtained using microphone signals alone. In this letter, we explore the sufficiency of using only microphone signals for joint microphones and sources localization by presenting two mapping functions for both TOA and TDOA formulas. Our proposed mapping functions demonstrate that the transformations of TOA and TDOA formulas can be the same, indicating that microphone signals alone are sufficient for joint microphones and sources localization without knowledge of the waveform of source signals. We have validated our proposed mapping functions through both mathematical proof and experimental results.

Justices for Information Bottleneck Theory

This study comes as a timely response to mounting criticism of the information bottleneck (IB) theory, injecting fresh perspectives to rectify misconceptions and reaffirm its validity. Firstly, we introduce an auxiliary function to reinterpret the maximal coding rate reduction method as a special yet local optimal case of IB theory. Through this auxiliary function, we clarify the paradox of decreasing mutual information during the application of ReLU activation in deep learning (DL) networks. Secondly, we challenge the doubts about IB theory's applicability by demonstrating its capacity to explain the absence of a compression phase with linear activation functions in hidden layers, when viewed through the lens of the auxiliary function. Lastly, by taking a novel theoretical stance, we provide a new way to interpret the inner organizations of DL networks by using IB theory, aligning them with recent experimental evidence. Thus, this paper serves as an act of justice for IB theory, potentially reinvigorating its standing and application in DL and other fields such as communications and biomedical research.

Attention Mechanism Meets with Hybrid Dense Network for Hyperspectral Image Classification

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) are more suitable, indeed. However, fixed kernel sizes make traditional CNN too specific, neither flexible nor conducive to feature learning, thus impacting on the classification accuracy. The convolution of different kernel size networks may overcome this problem by capturing more discriminating and relevant information. In light of this, the proposed solution aims at combining the core idea of 3D and 2D Inception net with the Attention mechanism to boost the HSIC CNN performance in a hybrid scenario. The resulting \textit{attention-fused hybrid network} (AfNet) is based on three attention-fused parallel hybrid sub-nets with different kernels in each block repeatedly using high-level features to enhance the final ground-truth maps. In short, AfNet is able to selectively filter out the discriminative features critical for classification. Several tests on HSI datasets provided competitive results for AfNet compared to state-of-the-art models. The proposed pipeline achieved, indeed, an overall accuracy of 97\% for the Indian Pines, 100\% for Botswana, 99\% for Pavia University, Pavia Center, and Salinas datasets.

Adversarial Stacked Auto-Encoders for Fair Representation Learning

Training machine learning models with the only accuracy as a final goal may promote prejudices and discriminatory behaviors embedded in the data. One solution is to learn latent representations that fulfill specific fairness metrics. Different types of learning methods are employed to map data into the fair representational space. The main purpose is to learn a latent representation of data that scores well on a fairness metric while maintaining the usability for the downstream task. In this paper, we propose a new fair representation learning approach that leverages different levels of representation of data to tighten the fairness bounds of the learned representation. Our results show that stacking different auto-encoders and enforcing fairness at different latent spaces result in an improvement of fairness compared to other existing approaches.

On the Fairness of Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs)

Generative adversarial networks (GANs) are one of the greatest advances in AI in recent years. With their ability to directly learn the probability distribution of data, and then sample synthetic realistic data. Many applications have emerged, using GANs to solve classical problems in machine learning, such as data augmentation, class unbalance problems, and fair representation learning. In this paper, we analyze and highlight fairness concerns of GANs model. In this regard, we show empirically that GANs models may inherently prefer certain groups during the training process and therefore they're not able to homogeneously generate data from different groups during the testing phase. Furthermore, we propose solutions to solve this issue by conditioning the GAN model towards samples' group or using ensemble method (boosting) to allow the GAN model to leverage distributed structure of data during the training phase and generate groups at equal rate during the testing phase.

Hyperspectral Image Classification: Artifacts of Dimension Reduction on Hybrid CNN

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) has been extensively studied for Hyperspectral Image Classification (HSIC) more specifically, 2D and 3D CNN models have proved highly efficient in exploiting the spatial and spectral information of Hyperspectral Images. However, 2D CNN only considers the spatial information and ignores the spectral information whereas 3D CNN jointly exploits spatial-spectral information at a high computational cost. Therefore, this work proposed a lightweight CNN (3D followed by 2D-CNN) model which significantly reduces the computational cost by distributing spatial-spectral feature extraction across a lighter model alongside a preprocessing that has been carried out to improve the classification results. Five benchmark Hyperspectral datasets (i.e., SalinasA, Salinas, Indian Pines, Pavia University, Pavia Center, and Botswana) are used for experimental evaluation. The experimental results show that the proposed pipeline outperformed in terms of generalization performance, statistical significance, and computational complexity, as compared to the state-of-the-art 2D/3D CNN models except commonly used computationally expensive design choices.