Bluetooth Low Energy Dataset Using In-Phase and Quadrature Samples for Indoor Localization

One significant challenge in research is to collect a large amount of data and learn the underlying relationship between the input and the output variables. This paper outlines the process of collecting and validating a dataset designed to determine the angle of arrival (AoA) using Bluetooth low energy (BLE) technology. The data, collected in a laboratory setting, is intended to approximate real-world industrial scenarios. This paper discusses the data collection process, the structure of the dataset, and the methodology adopted for automating sample labeling for supervised learning. The collected samples and the process of generating ground truth (GT) labels were validated using the Texas Instruments (TI) phase difference of arrival (PDoA) implementation on the data, yielding a mean absolute error (MAE) at one of the heights without obstacles of $25.71^\circ$. The distance estimation on BLE was implemented using a Gaussian Process Regression algorithm, yielding an MAE of $0.174$m.

High-Throughput Blind Co-Channel Interference Cancellation for Edge Devices Using Depthwise Separable Convolutions, Quantization, and Pruning

Co-channel interference cancellation (CCI) is the process used to reduce interference from other signals using the same frequency channel, thereby enhancing the performance of wireless communication systems. An improvement to this approach is blind CCI, which reduces interference without relying on prior knowledge of the interfering signal characteristics. Recent work suggested using machine learning (ML) models for this purpose, but high-throughput ML solutions are still lacking, especially for edge devices with limited resources. This work explores the adaptation of U-Net Convolutional Neural Network models for high-throughput blind source separation. Our approach is established on architectural modifications, notably through quantization and the incorporation of depthwise separable convolution, to achieve a balance between computational efficiency and performance. Our results demonstrate that the proposed models achieve superior MSE scores when removing unknown interference sources from the signals while maintaining significantly lower computational complexity compared to baseline models. One of our proposed models is deeper and fully convolutional, while the other is shallower with a convolutional structure incorporating an LSTM. Depthwise separable convolution and quantization further reduce the memory footprint and computational demands, albeit with some performance trade-offs. Specifically, applying depthwise separable convolutions to the model with the LSTM results in only a 0.72% degradation in MSE score while reducing MACs by 58.66%. For the fully convolutional model, we observe a 0.63% improvement in MSE score with even 61.10% fewer MACs. Overall, our findings underscore the feasibility of using optimized machine-learning models for interference cancellation in devices with limited resources.

Error Mitigation for TDoA UWB Indoor Localization using Unsupervised Machine Learning

Indoor positioning systems based on Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology are gaining recognition for their ability to provide cm-level localization accuracy. However, these systems often encounter challenges caused by dense multi-path fading, leading to positioning errors. To address this issue, in this letter, we propose a novel methodology for unsupervised anchor node selection using deep embedded clustering (DEC). Our approach uses an Auto Encoder (AE) before clustering, thereby better separating UWB features into separable clusters of UWB input signals. We furthermore investigate how to rank these clusters based on their cluster quality, allowing us to remove untrustworthy signals. Experimental results show the efficiency of our proposed method, demonstrating a significant 23.1% reduction in mean absolute error (MAE) compared to without anchor exclusion. Especially in the dense multi-path area, our algorithm achieves even more significant enhancements, reducing the MAE by 26.6% and the 95th percentile error by 49.3% compared to without anchor exclusion.

Removing the need for ground truth UWB data collection: self-supervised ranging error correction using deep reinforcement learning

Indoor positioning using UWB technology has gained interest due to its centimeter-level accuracy potential. However, multipath effects and non-line-of-sight conditions cause ranging errors between anchors and tags. Existing approaches for mitigating these ranging errors rely on collecting large labeled datasets, making them impractical for real-world deployments. This paper proposes a novel self-supervised deep reinforcement learning approach that does not require labeled ground truth data. A reinforcement learning agent uses the channel impulse response as a state and predicts corrections to minimize the error between corrected and estimated ranges. The agent learns, self-supervised, by iteratively improving corrections that are generated by combining the predictability of trajectories with filtering and smoothening. Experiments on real-world UWB measurements demonstrate comparable performance to state-of-the-art supervised methods, overcoming data dependency and lack of generalizability limitations. This makes self-supervised deep reinforcement learning a promising solution for practical and scalable UWB-ranging error correction.

A Comprehensive Overview on UWB Radar: Applications, Standards, Signal Processing Techniques, Datasets, Radio Chips, Trends and Future Research Directions

Due to their large bandwidth, relatively low cost, and robust performance, UWB radio chips can be used for a wide variety of applications, including localization, communication, and radar. This article offers an exhaustive survey of recent progress in UWB radar technology. The goal of this survey is to provide a comprehensive view of the technical fundamentals and emerging trends in UWB radar. Our analysis is categorized into multiple parts. Firstly, we explore the fundamental concepts of UWB radar technology from a technology and standardization point of view. Secondly, we examine the most relevant UWB applications and use cases, such as device-free localization, activity recognition, presence detection, and vital sign monitoring, discussing each time the bandwidth requirements, processing techniques, algorithms, latest developments, relevant example papers, and trends. Next, we steer readers toward relevant datasets and available radio chipsets. Finally, we discuss ongoing challenges and potential future research avenues. As such, this overview paper is designed to be a cornerstone reference for researchers charting the course of UWB radar technology over the last decade.

Forecast reconciliation for vaccine supply chain optimization

Vaccine supply chain optimization can benefit from hierarchical time series forecasting, when grouping the vaccines by type or location. However, forecasts of different hierarchy levels become incoherent when higher levels do not match the sum of the lower levels forecasts, which can be addressed by reconciliation methods. In this paper, we tackle the vaccine sale forecasting problem by modeling sales data from GSK between 2010 and 2021 as a hierarchical time series. After forecasting future values with several ARIMA models, we systematically compare the performance of various reconciliation methods, using statistical tests. We also compare the performance of the forecast before and after COVID. The results highlight Minimum Trace and Weighted Least Squares with Structural scaling as the best performing methods, which provided a coherent forecast while reducing the forecast error of the baseline ARIMA.

Feature-Based Generalized Gaussian Distribution Method for NLoS Detection in Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Indoor Positioning System

Non-Line-of-Sight (NLoS) propagation condition is a crucial factor affecting the precision of the localization in the Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Indoor Positioning System (IPS). Numerous supervised Machine Learning (ML) approaches have been applied for NLoS identification to improve the accuracy of the IPS. However, it is difficult for existing ML approaches to maintain a high classification accuracy when the database contains a small number of NLoS signals and a large number of Line-of-Sight (LoS) signals. The inaccurate localization of the target node caused by this small number of NLoS signals can still be problematic. To solve this issue, we propose feature-based Gaussian Distribution (GD) and Generalized Gaussian Distribution (GGD) NLoS detection algorithms. By employing our detection algorithm for the imbalanced dataset, a classification accuracy of $96.7\%$ and $98.0\%$ can be achieved. We also compared the proposed algorithm with the existing cutting-edge such as Support-Vector-Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), Naive Bayes (NB), and Neural Network (NN), which can achieve an accuracy of $92.6\%$, $92.8\%$, $93.2\%$, and $95.5\%$, respectively. The results demonstrate that the GGD algorithm can achieve high classification accuracy with the imbalanced dataset. Finally, the proposed algorithm can also achieve a higher classification accuracy for different ratios of LoS and NLoS signals which proves the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed method.

Semi-Supervised Constrained Clustering: An In-Depth Overview, Ranked Taxonomy and Future Research Directions

Clustering is a well-known unsupervised machine learning approach capable of automatically grouping discrete sets of instances with similar characteristics. Constrained clustering is a semi-supervised extension to this process that can be used when expert knowledge is available to indicate constraints that can be exploited. Well-known examples of such constraints are must-link (indicating that two instances belong to the same group) and cannot-link (two instances definitely do not belong together). The research area of constrained clustering has grown significantly over the years with a large variety of new algorithms and more advanced types of constraints being proposed. However, no unifying overview is available to easily understand the wide variety of available methods, constraints and benchmarks. To remedy this, this study presents in-detail the background of constrained clustering and provides a novel ranked taxonomy of the types of constraints that can be used in constrained clustering. In addition, it focuses on the instance-level pairwise constraints, and gives an overview of its applications and its historical context. Finally, it presents a statistical analysis covering 307 constrained clustering methods, categorizes them according to their features, and provides a ranking score indicating which methods have the most potential based on their popularity and validation quality. Finally, based upon this analysis, potential pitfalls and future research directions are provided.

An Overview of Ultra-WideBand (UWB) Standards(IEEE 802.15.4, FiRa, Apple): Interoperability Aspects and Future Research Directions

The increasing popularity of ultra-wideband (UWB) technology for location-based services such as access control and real-time indoor track\&tracing, as well as UWB support in new consumer devices such as smartphones, has resulted in the availability of multiple new UWB radio chips. However, due to this increase in UWB device availability, the question of which (industry) standards and configuration factors impact UWB interoperability and compatibility becomes increasingly important. In this paper, the fundamentals of UWB compatibility are investigated by first giving an overview of different UWB radio chips on the market. After that, an overview of UWB standards and standardisation entities is given. Next, this overview is used to discuss the focus of these different standards and to identify the differences between them. We describe compatibility issues and associated interoperability aspects related to PHY, MAC, and upper layers. For the PHY layer, compatibility is possible for all UWB chips if the correct settings are configured. For the MAC layer, the implementation of the multiple access scheme as well as the localization technique is mostly proprietary. For the device discovery, several standards are currently being drafted. Finally, future challenges related to UWB interoperability are discussed.

Multi-Static UWB Radar-based Passive Human Tracking Using COTS Devices

Due to its high delay resolution, the ultra-wideband (UWB) technique has been widely adopted for fine-grained indoor localization. Instead of active positioning, multi-static UWB radar-based passive human tracking is explored using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) devices. To extract the time-of-flight (ToF) reflected by the moving person, channel impulse responses (CIR) and the corresponding variances are used to train the convolutional neural networks (CNN) model. Particle filter algorithm is adopted to track the moving person based on the extracted ToFs of all pairs of links. Experimental results show that the proposed CIR- and variance-based CNN models achieve 30.12-cm and 29.04-cm root-mean-square errors (RMSEs), respectively. Especially, the variance-based CNN model is robust to the scenario changing and promising for practical applications.