Hardware, Algorithms, and Applications of the Neuromorphic Vision Sensor: a Review

Neuromorphic, or event, cameras represent a transformation in the classical approach to visual sensing encodes detected instantaneous per-pixel illumination changes into an asynchronous stream of event packets. Their novelty compared to standard cameras lies in the transition from capturing full picture frames at fixed time intervals to a sparse data format which, with its distinctive qualities, offers potential improvements in various applications. However, these advantages come at the cost of reinventing algorithmic procedures or adapting them to effectively process the new data format. In this survey, we systematically examine neuromorphic vision along three main dimensions. First, we highlight the technological evolution and distinctive hardware features of neuromorphic cameras from their inception to recent models. Second, we review image processing algorithms developed explicitly for event-based data, covering key works on feature detection, tracking, and optical flow -which form the basis for analyzing image elements and transformations -as well as depth and pose estimation or object recognition, which interpret more complex scene structures and components. These techniques, drawn from classical computer vision and modern data-driven approaches, are examined to illustrate the breadth of applications for event-based cameras. Third, we present practical application case studies demonstrating how event cameras have been successfully used across various industries and scenarios. Finally, we analyze the challenges limiting widespread adoption, identify significant research gaps compared to standard imaging techniques, and outline promising future directions and opportunities that neuromorphic vision offers.

Reinforcement Learning-Based Neuroadaptive Control of Robotic Manipulators under Deferred Constraints

This paper presents a reinforcement learning-based neuroadaptive control framework for robotic manipulators operating under deferred constraints. The proposed approach improves traditional barrier Lyapunov functions by introducing a smooth constraint enforcement mechanism that offers two key advantages: (i) it minimizes control effort in unconstrained regions and progressively increases it near constraints, improving energy efficiency, and (ii) it enables gradual constraint activation through a prescribed-time shifting function, allowing safe operation even when initial conditions violate constraints. To address system uncertainties and improve adaptability, an actor-critic reinforcement learning framework is employed. The critic network estimates the value function, while the actor network learns an optimal control policy in real time, enabling adaptive constraint handling without requiring explicit system modeling. Lyapunov-based stability analysis guarantees the boundedness of all closed-loop signals. The effectiveness of the proposed method is validated through numerical simulations.

Category-level Meta-learned NeRF Priors for Efficient Object Mapping

In 3D object mapping, category-level priors enable efficient object reconstruction and canonical pose estimation, requiring only a single prior per semantic category (e.g., chair, book, laptop). Recently, DeepSDF has predominantly been used as a category-level shape prior, but it struggles to reconstruct sharp geometry and is computationally expensive. In contrast, NeRFs capture fine details but have yet to be effectively integrated with category-level priors in a real-time multi-object mapping framework. To bridge this gap, we introduce PRENOM, a Prior-based Efficient Neural Object Mapper that integrates category-level priors with object-level NeRFs to enhance reconstruction efficiency while enabling canonical object pose estimation. PRENOM gets to know objects on a first-name basis by meta-learning on synthetic reconstruction tasks generated from open-source shape datasets. To account for object category variations, it employs a multi-objective genetic algorithm to optimize the NeRF architecture for each category, balancing reconstruction quality and training time. Additionally, prior-based probabilistic ray sampling directs sampling toward expected object regions, accelerating convergence and improving reconstruction quality under constrained resources. Experimental results on a low-end GPU highlight the ability of PRENOM to achieve high-quality reconstructions while maintaining computational feasibility. Specifically, comparisons with prior-free NeRF-based approaches on a synthetic dataset show a 21% lower Chamfer distance, demonstrating better reconstruction quality. Furthermore, evaluations against other approaches using shape priors on a noisy real-world dataset indicate a 13% improvement averaged across all reconstruction metrics, and comparable pose and size estimation accuracy, while being trained for 5x less time.

vS-Graphs: Integrating Visual SLAM and Situational Graphs through Multi-level Scene Understanding

Current Visual Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (VSLAM) systems often struggle to create maps that are both semantically rich and easily interpretable. While incorporating semantic scene knowledge aids in building richer maps with contextual associations among mapped objects, representing them in structured formats like scene graphs has not been widely addressed, encountering complex map comprehension and limited scalability. This paper introduces visual S-Graphs (vS-Graphs), a novel real-time VSLAM framework that integrates vision-based scene understanding with map reconstruction and comprehensible graph-based representation. The framework infers structural elements (i.e., rooms and corridors) from detected building components (i.e., walls and ground surfaces) and incorporates them into optimizable 3D scene graphs. This solution enhances the reconstructed map's semantic richness, comprehensibility, and localization accuracy. Extensive experiments on standard benchmarks and real-world datasets demonstrate that vS-Graphs outperforms state-of-the-art VSLAM methods, reducing trajectory error by an average of 3.38% and up to 9.58% on real-world data. Furthermore, the proposed framework achieves environment-driven semantic entity detection accuracy comparable to precise LiDAR-based frameworks using only visual features. A web page containing more media and evaluation outcomes is available on https://snt-arg.github.io/vsgraphs-results/.

Constraint-Based Modeling of Dynamic Entities in 3D Scene Graphs for Robust SLAM

Autonomous robots depend crucially on their ability to perceive and process information from dynamic, ever-changing environments. Traditional simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) approaches struggle to maintain consistent scene representations because of numerous moving objects, often treating dynamic elements as outliers rather than explicitly modeling them in the scene representation. In this paper, we present a novel hierarchical 3D scene graph-based SLAM framework that addresses the challenge of modeling and estimating the pose of dynamic objects and agents. We use fiducial markers to detect dynamic entities and to extract their attributes while improving keyframe selection and implementing new capabilities for dynamic entity mapping. We maintain a hierarchical representation where dynamic objects are registered in the SLAM graph and are constrained with robot keyframes and the floor level of the building with our novel entity-keyframe constraints and intra-entity constraints. By combining semantic and geometric constraints between dynamic entities and the environment, our system jointly optimizes the SLAM graph to estimate the pose of the robot and various dynamic agents and objects while maintaining an accurate map. Experimental evaluation demonstrates that our approach achieves a 27.57% reduction in pose estimation error compared to traditional methods and enables higher-level reasoning about scene dynamics.

ecg2o: A Seamless Extension of g2o for Equality-Constrained Factor Graph Optimization

Factor graph optimization serves as a fundamental framework for robotic perception, enabling applications such as pose estimation, simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), structure-from-motion (SfM), and situational awareness. Traditionally, these methods solve unconstrained least squares problems using algorithms such as Gauss-Newton and Levenberg-Marquardt. However, extending factor graphs with native support for equality constraints can improve solution accuracy and broaden their applicability, particularly in optimal control. In this paper, we propose a novel extension of factor graphs that seamlessly incorporates equality constraints without requiring additional optimization algorithms. Our approach maintains the efficiency and flexibility of existing second-order optimization techniques while ensuring constraint feasibility. To validate our method, we apply it to an optimal control problem for velocity tracking in autonomous vehicles and benchmark our results against state-of-the-art constraint handling techniques. Additionally, we introduce ecg2o, a header-only C++ library that extends the widely used g2o factor graph library by adding full support for equality-constrained optimization. This library, along with demonstrative examples and the optimal control problem, is available as open source at https://github.com/snt-arg/ecg2o

S-Graphs 2.0 -- A Hierarchical-Semantic Optimization and Loop Closure for SLAM

Works based on localization and mapping do not exploit the inherent semantic-relational information from the environment for faster and efficient management and optimization of the robot poses and its map elements, often leading to pose and map inaccuracies and computational inefficiencies in large scale environments. 3D scene graph representations which distributes the environment in an hierarchical manner can be exploited to enhance the management/optimization of underlying robot poses and its map. In this direction, we present our work Situational Graphs 2.0, which leverages the hierarchical structure of indoor scenes for efficient data management and optimization. Our algorithm begins by constructing a situational graph that organizes the environment into four layers: Keyframes, Walls, Rooms, and Floors. Our first novelty lies in the front-end which includes a floor detection module capable of identifying stairways and assigning a floor-level semantic-relations to the underlying layers. This floor-level semantic enables a floor-based loop closure strategy, rejecting false-positive loop closures in visually similar areas on different floors. Our second novelty is in exploiting the hierarchy for an improved optimization. It consists of: (1) local optimization, optimizing a window of recent keyframes and their connected components, (2) floor-global optimization, which focuses only on keyframes and their connections within the current floor during loop closures, and (3) room-local optimization, marginalizing redundant keyframes that share observations within the room. We validate our algorithm extensively in different real multi-floor environments. Our approach can demonstrate state-of-art-art results in large scale multi-floor environments creating hierarchical maps while bounding the computational complexity where several baseline works fail to execute efficiently.

Motion Control in Multi-Rotor Aerial Robots Using Deep Reinforcement Learning

This paper investigates the application of Deep Reinforcement (DRL) Learning to address motion control challenges in drones for additive manufacturing (AM). Drone-based additive manufacturing promises flexible and autonomous material deposition in large-scale or hazardous environments. However, achieving robust real-time control of a multi-rotor aerial robot under varying payloads and potential disturbances remains challenging. Traditional controllers like PID often require frequent parameter re-tuning, limiting their applicability in dynamic scenarios. We propose a DRL framework that learns adaptable control policies for multi-rotor drones performing waypoint navigation in AM tasks. We compare Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG) and Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3) within a curriculum learning scheme designed to handle increasing complexity. Our experiments show TD3 consistently balances training stability, accuracy, and success, particularly when mass variability is introduced. These findings provide a scalable path toward robust, autonomous drone control in additive manufacturing.

Unveiling the Potential of iMarkers: Invisible Fiducial Markers for Advanced Robotics

Fiducial markers are widely used in various robotics tasks, facilitating enhanced navigation, object recognition, and scene understanding. Despite their advantages for robots and Augmented Reality (AR) applications, they often disrupt the visual aesthetics of environments because they are visible to humans, making them unsuitable for non-intrusive use cases. To address this gap, this paper presents "iMarkers"-innovative, unobtrusive fiducial markers detectable exclusively by robots equipped with specialized sensors. These markers offer high flexibility in production, allowing customization of their visibility range and encoding algorithms to suit various demands. The paper also introduces the hardware designs and software algorithms developed for detecting iMarkers, highlighting their adaptability and robustness in the detection and recognition stages. Various evaluations have demonstrated the effectiveness of iMarkers compared to conventional (printed) and blended fiducial markers and confirmed their applicability in diverse robotics scenarios.

Global SLAM in Visual-Inertial Systems with 5G Time-of-Arrival Integration

This paper presents a novel approach to improve global localization and mapping in indoor drone navigation by integrating 5G Time of Arrival (ToA) measurements into ORB-SLAM3, a Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) system. By incorporating ToA data from 5G base stations, we align the SLAM's local reference frame with a global coordinate system, enabling accurate and consistent global localization. We extend ORB-SLAM3's optimization pipeline to integrate ToA measurements alongside bias estimation, transforming the inherently local estimation into a globally consistent one. This integration effectively resolves scale ambiguity in monocular SLAM systems and enhances robustness, particularly in challenging scenarios where standard SLAM may fail. Our method is evaluated using five real-world indoor datasets collected with RGB-D cameras and inertial measurement units (IMUs), augmented with simulated 5G ToA measurements at 28 GHz and 78 GHz frequencies using MATLAB and QuaDRiGa. We tested four SLAM configurations: RGB-D, RGB-D-Inertial, Monocular, and Monocular-Inertial. The results demonstrate that while local estimation accuracy remains comparable due to the high precision of RGB-D-based ORB-SLAM3 compared to ToA measurements, the inclusion of ToA measurements facilitates robust global positioning. In scenarios where standard mono-inertial ORB-SLAM3 loses tracking, our approach maintains accurate localization throughout the trajectory.