I Can Find You in Seconds! Leveraging Large Language Models for Code Authorship Attribution

Source code authorship attribution is important in software forensics, plagiarism detection, and protecting software patch integrity. Existing techniques often rely on supervised machine learning, which struggles with generalization across different programming languages and coding styles due to the need for large labeled datasets. Inspired by recent advances in natural language authorship analysis using large language models (LLMs), which have shown exceptional performance without task-specific tuning, this paper explores the use of LLMs for source code authorship attribution. We present a comprehensive study demonstrating that state-of-the-art LLMs can successfully attribute source code authorship across different languages. LLMs can determine whether two code snippets are written by the same author with zero-shot prompting, achieving a Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC) of 0.78, and can attribute code authorship from a small set of reference code snippets via few-shot learning, achieving MCC of 0.77. Additionally, LLMs show some adversarial robustness against misattribution attacks. Despite these capabilities, we found that naive prompting of LLMs does not scale well with a large number of authors due to input token limitations. To address this, we propose a tournament-style approach for large-scale attribution. Evaluating this approach on datasets of C++ (500 authors, 26,355 samples) and Java (686 authors, 55,267 samples) code from GitHub, we achieve classification accuracy of up to 65% for C++ and 68.7% for Java using only one reference per author. These results open new possibilities for applying LLMs to code authorship attribution in cybersecurity and software engineering.

Simple Perturbations Subvert Ethereum Phishing Transactions Detection: An Empirical Analysis

This paper explores the vulnerability of machine learning models, specifically Random Forest, Decision Tree, and K-Nearest Neighbors, to very simple single-feature adversarial attacks in the context of Ethereum fraudulent transaction detection. Through comprehensive experimentation, we investigate the impact of various adversarial attack strategies on model performance metrics, such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. Our findings, highlighting how prone those techniques are to simple attacks, are alarming, and the inconsistency in the attacks' effect on different algorithms promises ways for attack mitigation. We examine the effectiveness of different mitigation strategies, including adversarial training and enhanced feature selection, in enhancing model robustness.

Untargeted Code Authorship Evasion with Seq2Seq Transformation

Code authorship attribution is the problem of identifying authors of programming language codes through the stylistic features in their codes, a topic that recently witnessed significant interest with outstanding performance. In this work, we present SCAE, a code authorship obfuscation technique that leverages a Seq2Seq code transformer called StructCoder. SCAE customizes StructCoder, a system designed initially for function-level code translation from one language to another (e.g., Java to C#), using transfer learning. SCAE improved the efficiency at a slight accuracy degradation compared to existing work. We also reduced the processing time by about 68% while maintaining an 85% transformation success rate and up to 95.77% evasion success rate in the untargeted setting.

Burning the Adversarial Bridges: Robust Windows Malware Detection Against Binary-level Mutations

Toward robust malware detection, we explore the attack surface of existing malware detection systems. We conduct root-cause analyses of the practical binary-level black-box adversarial malware examples. Additionally, we uncover the sensitivity of volatile features within the detection engines and exhibit their exploitability. Highlighting volatile information channels within the software, we introduce three software pre-processing steps to eliminate the attack surface, namely, padding removal, software stripping, and inter-section information resetting. Further, to counter the emerging section injection attacks, we propose a graph-based section-dependent information extraction scheme for software representation. The proposed scheme leverages aggregated information within various sections in the software to enable robust malware detection and mitigate adversarial settings. Our experimental results show that traditional malware detection models are ineffective against adversarial threats. However, the attack surface can be largely reduced by eliminating the volatile information. Therefore, we propose simple-yet-effective methods to mitigate the impacts of binary manipulation attacks. Overall, our graph-based malware detection scheme can accurately detect malware with an area under the curve score of 88.32\% and a score of 88.19% under a combination of binary manipulation attacks, exhibiting the efficiency of our proposed scheme.

Analyzing In-browser Cryptojacking

Cryptojacking is the permissionless use of a target device to covertly mine cryptocurrencies. With cryptojacking, attackers use malicious JavaScript codes to force web browsers into solving proof-of-work puzzles, thus making money by exploiting the resources of the website visitors. To understand and counter such attacks, we systematically analyze the static, dynamic, and economic aspects of in-browser cryptojacking. For static analysis, we perform content, currency, and code-based categorization of cryptojacking samples to 1) measure their distribution across websites, 2) highlight their platform affinities, and 3) study their code complexities. We apply machine learning techniques to distinguish cryptojacking scripts from benign and malicious JavaScript samples with 100\% accuracy. For dynamic analysis, we analyze the effect of cryptojacking on critical system resources, such as CPU and battery usage. We also perform web browser fingerprinting to analyze the information exchange between the victim node and the dropzone cryptojacking server. We also build an analytical model to empirically evaluate the feasibility of cryptojacking as an alternative to online advertisement. Our results show a sizeable negative profit and loss gap, indicating that the model is economically infeasible. Finally, leveraging insights from our analyses, we build countermeasures for in-browser cryptojacking that improve the existing remedies.

SHIELD: Thwarting Code Authorship Attribution

Authorship attribution has become increasingly accurate, posing a serious privacy risk for programmers who wish to remain anonymous. In this paper, we introduce SHIELD to examine the robustness of different code authorship attribution approaches against adversarial code examples. We define four attacks on attribution techniques, which include targeted and non-targeted attacks, and realize them using adversarial code perturbation. We experiment with a dataset of 200 programmers from the Google Code Jam competition to validate our methods targeting six state-of-the-art authorship attribution methods that adopt a variety of techniques for extracting authorship traits from source-code, including RNN, CNN, and code stylometry. Our experiments demonstrate the vulnerability of current authorship attribution methods against adversarial attacks. For the non-targeted attack, our experiments demonstrate the vulnerability of current authorship attribution methods against the attack with an attack success rate exceeds 98.5\% accompanied by a degradation of the identification confidence that exceeds 13\%. For the targeted attacks, we show the possibility of impersonating a programmer using targeted-adversarial perturbations with a success rate ranging from 66\% to 88\% for different authorship attribution techniques under several adversarial scenarios.

Learning Location from Shared Elevation Profiles in Fitness Apps: A Privacy Perspective

The extensive use of smartphones and wearable devices has facilitated many useful applications. For example, with Global Positioning System (GPS)-equipped smart and wearable devices, many applications can gather, process, and share rich metadata, such as geolocation, trajectories, elevation, and time. For example, fitness applications, such as Runkeeper and Strava, utilize the information for activity tracking and have recently witnessed a boom in popularity. Those fitness tracker applications have their own web platforms and allow users to share activities on such platforms or even with other social network platforms. To preserve the privacy of users while allowing sharing, several of those platforms may allow users to disclose partial information, such as the elevation profile for an activity, which supposedly would not leak the location of the users. In this work, and as a cautionary tale, we create a proof of concept where we examine the extent to which elevation profiles can be used to predict the location of users. To tackle this problem, we devise three plausible threat settings under which the city or borough of the targets can be predicted. Those threat settings define the amount of information available to the adversary to launch the prediction attacks. Establishing that simple features of elevation profiles, e.g., spectral features, are insufficient, we devise both natural language processing (NLP)-inspired text-like representation and computer vision-inspired image-like representation of elevation profiles, and we convert the problem at hand into text and image classification problem. We use both traditional machine learning- and deep learning-based techniques and achieve a prediction success rate ranging from 59.59\% to 99.80\%. The findings are alarming, highlighting that sharing elevation information may have significant location privacy risks.

Enriching Vulnerability Reports Through Automated and Augmented Description Summarization

Security incidents and data breaches are increasing rapidly, and only a fraction of them is being reported. Public vulnerability databases, e.g., national vulnerability database (NVD) and common vulnerability and exposure (CVE), have been leading the effort in documenting vulnerabilities and sharing them to aid defenses. Both are known for many issues, including brief vulnerability descriptions. Those descriptions play an important role in communicating the vulnerability information to security analysts in order to develop the appropriate countermeasure. Many resources provide additional information about vulnerabilities, however, they are not utilized to boost public repositories. In this paper, we devise a pipeline to augment vulnerability description through third party reference (hyperlink) scrapping. To normalize the description, we build a natural language summarization pipeline utilizing a pretrained language model that is fine-tuned using labeled instances and evaluate its performance against both human evaluation (golden standard) and computational metrics, showing initial promising results in terms of summary fluency, completeness, correctness, and understanding.

Self-Configurable Stabilized Real-Time Detection Learning for Autonomous Driving Applications

Guaranteeing real-time and accurate object detection simultaneously is paramount in autonomous driving environments. However, the existing object detection neural network systems are characterized by a tradeoff between computation time and accuracy, making it essential to optimize such a tradeoff. Fortunately, in many autonomous driving environments, images come in a continuous form, providing an opportunity to use optical flow. In this paper, we improve the performance of an object detection neural network utilizing optical flow estimation. In addition, we propose a Lyapunov optimization framework for time-average performance maximization subject to stability. It adaptively determines whether to use optical flow to suit the dynamic vehicle environment, thereby ensuring the vehicle's queue stability and the time-average maximum performance simultaneously. To verify the key ideas, we conduct numerical experiments with various object detection neural networks and optical flow estimation networks. In addition, we demonstrate the self-configurable stabilized detection with YOLOv3-tiny and FlowNet2-S, which are the real-time object detection network and an optical flow estimation network, respectively. In the demonstration, our proposed framework improves the accuracy by 3.02%, the number of detected objects by 59.6%, and the queue stability for computing capabilities.

Robust Natural Language Processing: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions

Recent natural language processing (NLP) techniques have accomplished high performance on benchmark datasets, primarily due to the significant improvement in the performance of deep learning. The advances in the research community have led to great enhancements in state-of-the-art production systems for NLP tasks, such as virtual assistants, speech recognition, and sentiment analysis. However, such NLP systems still often fail when tested with adversarial attacks. The initial lack of robustness exposed troubling gaps in current models' language understanding capabilities, creating problems when NLP systems are deployed in real life. In this paper, we present a structured overview of NLP robustness research by summarizing the literature in a systemic way across various dimensions. We then take a deep-dive into the various dimensions of robustness, across techniques, metrics, embeddings, and benchmarks. Finally, we argue that robustness should be multi-dimensional, provide insights into current research, identify gaps in the literature to suggest directions worth pursuing to address these gaps.