Matrix-Valued LogSumExp Approximation for Colour Morphology

Mathematical morphology is a part of image processing that uses a window that moves across the image to change certain pixels according to certain operations. The concepts of supremum and infimum play a crucial role here, but it proves challenging to define them generally for higher-dimensional data, such as colour representations. Numerous approaches have therefore been taken to solve this problem with certain compromises. In this paper we will analyse the construction of a new approach, which we have already presented experimentally in paper [Kahra, M., Breu{\ss}, M., Kleefeld, A., Welk, M., DGMM 2024, pp. 325-337]. This is based on a method by Burgeth and Kleefeld [Burgeth, B., Kleefeld, A., ISMM 2013, pp. 243-254], who regard the colours as symmetric $2\times2$ matrices and compare them by means of the Loewner order in a bi-cone through different suprema. However, we will replace the supremum with the LogExp approximation for the maximum instead. This allows us to transfer the associativity of the dilation from the one-dimensional case to the higher-dimensional case. In addition, we will investigate the minimality property and specify a relaxation to ensure that our approach is continuously dependent on the input data.

Towards Efficient Time Stepping for Numerical Shape Correspondence

The computation of correspondences between shapes is a principal task in shape analysis. To this end, methods based on partial differential equations (PDEs) have been established, encompassing e.g. the classic heat kernel signature as well as numerical solution schemes for geometric PDEs. In this work we focus on the latter approach. We consider here several time stepping schemes. The goal of this investigation is to assess, if one may identify a useful property of methods for time integration for the shape analysis context. Thereby we investigate the dependence on time step size, since the class of implicit schemes that are useful candidates in this context should ideally yield an invariant behaviour with respect to this parameter. To this end we study integration of heat and wave equation on a manifold. In order to facilitate this study, we propose an efficient, unified model order reduction framework for these models. We show that specific $l_0$ stable schemes are favourable for numerical shape analysis. We give an experimental evaluation of the methods at hand of classical TOSCA data sets.

An Approach to Colour Morphological Supremum Formation using the LogSumExp Approximation

Mathematical morphology is a part of image processing that has proven to be fruitful for numerous applications. Two main operations in mathematical morphology are dilation and erosion. These are based on the construction of a supremum or infimum with respect to an order over the tonal range in a certain section of the image. The tonal ordering can easily be realised in grey-scale morphology, and some morphological methods have been proposed for colour morphology. However, all of these have certain limitations. In this paper we present a novel approach to colour morphology extending upon previous work in the field based on the Loewner order. We propose to consider an approximation of the supremum by means of a log-sum exponentiation introduced by Maslov. We apply this to the embedding of an RGB image in a field of symmetric $2\times2$ matrices. In this way we obtain nearly isotropic matrices representing colours and the structural advantage of transitivity. In numerical experiments we highlight some remarkable properties of the proposed approach.

Morphological Sampling Theorem and its Extension to Grey-value Images

Sampling is a basic operation in image processing. In classic literature, a morphological sampling theorem has been established, which shows how sampling interacts by morphological operations with image reconstruction. Many aspects of morphological sampling have been investigated for binary images, but only some of them have been explored for grey-value imagery. With this paper, we make a step towards completion of this open matter. By relying on the umbra notion, we show how to transfer classic theorems in binary morphology about the interaction of sampling with the fundamental morphological operations dilation, erosion, opening and closing, to the grey-value setting. In doing this we also extend the theory relating the morphological operations and corresponding reconstructions to use of non-flat structuring elements. We illustrate the theoretical developments at hand of examples.

The Polynomial Connection between Morphological Dilation and Discrete Convolution

In this paper we consider the fundamental operations dilation and erosion of mathematical morphology. Many powerful image filtering operations are based on their combinations. We establish homomorphism between max-plus semi-ring of integers and subset of polynomials over the field of real numbers. This enables to reformulate the task of computing morphological dilation to that of computing sums and products of polynomials. Therefore, dilation and its dual operation erosion can be computed by convolution of discrete linear signals, which is efficiently accomplished using a Fast Fourier Transform technique. The novel method may deal with non-flat filters and incorporates no restrictions on shape or size of the structuring element, unlike many other fast methods in the field. In contrast to previous fast Fourier techniques it gives exact results and is not an approximation. The new method is in practice particularly suitable for filtering images with small tonal range or when employing large filter sizes. We explore the benefits by investigating an implementation on FPGA hardware. Several experiments demonstrate the exactness and efficiency of the proposed method.

On the Regularising Levenberg-Marquardt Method for Blinn-Phong Photometric Stereo

Photometric stereo refers to the process to compute the 3D shape of an object using information on illumination and reflectance from several input images from the same point of view. The most often used reflectance model is the Lambertian reflectance, however this does not include specular highlights in input images. In this paper we consider the arising non-linear optimisation problem when employing Blinn-Phong reflectance for modeling specular effects. To this end we focus on the regularising Levenberg-Marquardt scheme. We show how to derive an explicit bound that gives information on the convergence reliability of the method depending on given data, and we show how to gain experimental evidence of numerical correctness of the iteration by making use of the Scherzer condition. The theoretical investigations that are at the heart of this paper are supplemented by some tests with real-world imagery.

YOLO-based Object Detection in Industry 4.0 Fischertechnik Model Environment

In this paper we extensively explore the suitability of YOLO architectures to monitor the process flow across a Fischertechnik industry 4.0 application. Specifically, different YOLO architectures in terms of size and complexity design along with different prior-shapes assignment strategies are adopted. To simulate the real world factory environment, we prepared a rich dataset augmented with different distortions that highly enhance and in some cases degrade our image qualities. The degradation is performed to account for environmental variations and enhancements opt to compensate the color correlations that we face while preparing our dataset. The analysis of our conducted experiments shows the effectiveness of the presented approach evaluated using different measures along with the training and validation strategies that we tailored to tackle the unavoidable color correlations that the problem at hand inherits by nature.

Long Short-Term Memory Neural Network for Temperature Prediction in Laser Powder Bed Additive Manufacturing

In context of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF), it is known that the properties of the final fabricated product highly depend on the temperature distribution and its gradient over the manufacturing plate. In this paper, we propose a novel means to predict the temperature gradient distributions during the printing process by making use of neural networks. This is realized by employing heat maps produced by an optimized printing protocol simulation and used for training a specifically tailored recurrent neural network in terms of a long short-term memory architecture. The aim of this is to avoid extreme and inhomogeneous temperature distribution that may occur across the plate in the course of the printing process. In order to train the neural network, we adopt a well-engineered simulation and unsupervised learning framework. To maintain a minimized average thermal gradient across the plate, a cost function is introduced as the core criteria, which is inspired and optimized by considering the well-known traveling salesman problem (TSP). As time evolves the unsupervised printing process governed by TSP produces a history of temperature heat maps that maintain minimized average thermal gradient. All in one, we propose an intelligent printing tool that provides control over the substantial printing process components for L-PBF, i.e.\ optimal nozzle trajectory deployment as well as online temperature prediction for controlling printing quality.

Adaptive Neural Domain Refinement for Solving Time-Dependent Differential Equations

A classic approach for solving differential equations with neural networks builds upon neural forms, in which a cost function can be constructed directly using the differential equation with a discretisation of the solution domain. Making use of neural forms for time-dependent differential equations, one can apply the recently developed method of domain fragmentation. That is, the domain may be split into several subdomains, on which the optimisation problem is solved. In classic adaptive numerical methods for solving differential equations, the mesh as well as the domain may be refined or decomposed, respectively, in order to improve accuracy. Also the degree of approximation accuracy may be adapted. It would be desirable to transfer such important and successful strategies to the field of neural network based solutions. In the present work, we propose a novel adaptive neural approach to meet this aim for solving time-dependent problems. To this end, each subdomain is reduced in size until the optimisation is resolved up to a predefined training accuracy. In addition, while the neural networks employed are by default small, the number of neurons may also be adjusted in an adaptive way. We introduce conditions to automatically confirm the solution reliability and optimise computational parameters whenever it is necessary. We provide results for three carefully chosen example initial value problems and illustrate important properties of the method alongside.

Collocation Polynomial Neural Forms and Domain Fragmentation for Initial Value Problems

Several neural network approaches for solving differential equations employ trial solutions with a feedforward neural network. There are different means to incorporate the trial solution in the construction, for instance one may include them directly in the cost function. Used within the corresponding neural network, the trial solutions define the so-called neural form. Such neural forms represent general, flexible tools by which one may solve various differential equations. In this article we consider time-dependent initial value problems, which require to set up the neural form framework adequately. The neural forms presented up to now in the literature for such a setting can be considered as first order polynomials. In this work we propose to extend the polynomial order of the neural forms. The novel collocation-type construction includes several feedforward neural networks, one for each order. Additionally, we propose the fragmentation of the computational domain into subdomains. The neural forms are solved on each subdomain, whereas the interfacing grid points overlap in order to provide initial values over the whole fragmentation. We illustrate in experiments that the combination of collocation neural forms of higher order and the domain fragmentation allows to solve initial value problems over large domains with high accuracy and reliability.