Flow Exporter Impact on Intelligent Intrusion Detection Systems

High-quality datasets are critical for training machine learning models, as inconsistencies in feature generation can hinder the accuracy and reliability of threat detection. For this reason, ensuring the quality of the data in network intrusion detection datasets is important. A key component of this is using reliable tools to generate the flows and features present in the datasets. This paper investigates the impact of flow exporters on the performance and reliability of machine learning models for intrusion detection. Using HERA, a tool designed to export flows and extract features, the raw network packets of two widely used datasets, UNSW-NB15 and CIC-IDS2017, were processed from PCAP files to generate new versions of these datasets. These were compared to the original ones in terms of their influence on the performance of several models, including Random Forest, XGBoost, LightGBM, and Explainable Boosting Machine. The results obtained were significant. Models trained on the HERA version of the datasets consistently outperformed those trained on the original dataset, showing improvements in accuracy and indicating a better generalisation. This highlighted the importance of flow generation in the model's ability to differentiate between benign and malicious traffic.

Intelligent Green Efficiency for Intrusion Detection

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged in popularity recently, recording great progress in various industries. However, the environmental impact of AI is a growing concern, in terms of the energy consumption and carbon footprint of Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) models, making essential investigate Green AI, an attempt to reduce the climate impact of AI systems. This paper presents an assessment of different programming languages and Feature Selection (FS) methods to improve computation performance of AI focusing on Network Intrusion Detection (NID) and cyber-attack classification tasks. Experiments were conducted using five ML models - Random Forest, XGBoost, LightGBM, Multi-Layer Perceptron, and Long Short-Term Memory - implemented in four programming languages - Python, Java, R, and Rust - along with three FS methods - Information Gain, Recursive Feature Elimination, and Chi-Square. The obtained results demonstrated that FS plays an important role enhancing the computational efficiency of AI models without compromising detection accuracy, highlighting languages like Python and R, that benefit from a rich AI libraries environment. These conclusions can be useful to design efficient and sustainable AI systems that still provide a good generalization and a reliable detection.

FuzzTheREST: An Intelligent Automated Black-box RESTful API Fuzzer

Software's pervasive impact and increasing reliance in the era of digital transformation raise concerns about vulnerabilities, emphasizing the need for software security. Fuzzy testing is a dynamic analysis software testing technique that consists of feeding faulty input data to a System Under Test (SUT) and observing its behavior. Specifically regarding black-box RESTful API testing, recent literature has attempted to automate this technique using heuristics to perform the input search and using the HTTP response status codes for classification. However, most approaches do not keep track of code coverage, which is important to validate the solution. This work introduces a black-box RESTful API fuzzy testing tool that employs Reinforcement Learning (RL) for vulnerability detection. The fuzzer operates via the OpenAPI Specification (OAS) file and a scenarios file, which includes information to communicate with the SUT and the sequences of functionalities to test, respectively. To evaluate its effectiveness, the tool was tested on the Petstore API. The tool found a total of six unique vulnerabilities and achieved 55\% code coverage.

SCoPE: Evaluating LLMs for Software Vulnerability Detection

In recent years, code security has become increasingly important, especially with the rise of interconnected technologies. Detecting vulnerabilities early in the software development process has demonstrated numerous benefits. Consequently, the scientific community started using machine learning for automated detection of source code vulnerabilities. This work explores and refines the CVEFixes dataset, which is commonly used to train models for code-related tasks, specifically the C/C++ subset. To this purpose, the Source Code Processing Engine (SCoPE), a framework composed of strategized techniques that can be used to reduce the size and normalize C/C++ functions is presented. The output generated by SCoPE was used to create a new version of CVEFixes. This refined dataset was then employed in a feature representation analysis to assess the effectiveness of the tool's code processing techniques, consisting of fine-tuning three pre-trained LLMs for software vulnerability detection. The results show that SCoPE successfully helped to identify 905 duplicates within the evaluated subset. The LLM results corroborate with the literature regarding their suitability for software vulnerability detection, with the best model achieving 53% F1-score.

Adversarial Evasion Attack Efficiency against Large Language Models

Large Language Models (LLMs) are valuable for text classification, but their vulnerabilities must not be disregarded. They lack robustness against adversarial examples, so it is pertinent to understand the impacts of different types of perturbations, and assess if those attacks could be replicated by common users with a small amount of perturbations and a small number of queries to a deployed LLM. This work presents an analysis of the effectiveness, efficiency, and practicality of three different types of adversarial attacks against five different LLMs in a sentiment classification task. The obtained results demonstrated the very distinct impacts of the word-level and character-level attacks. The word attacks were more effective, but the character and more constrained attacks were more practical and required a reduced number of perturbations and queries. These differences need to be considered during the development of adversarial defense strategies to train more robust LLMs for intelligent text classification applications.

Efficient Network Traffic Feature Sets for IoT Intrusion Detection

The use of Machine Learning (ML) models in cybersecurity solutions requires high-quality data that is stripped of redundant, missing, and noisy information. By selecting the most relevant features, data integrity and model efficiency can be significantly improved. This work evaluates the feature sets provided by a combination of different feature selection methods, namely Information Gain, Chi-Squared Test, Recursive Feature Elimination, Mean Absolute Deviation, and Dispersion Ratio, in multiple IoT network datasets. The influence of the smaller feature sets on both the classification performance and the training time of ML models is compared, with the aim of increasing the computational efficiency of IoT intrusion detection. Overall, the most impactful features of each dataset were identified, and the ML models obtained higher computational efficiency while preserving a good generalization, showing little to no difference between the sets.

Reliable Feature Selection for Adversarially Robust Cyber-Attack Detection

The growing cybersecurity threats make it essential to use high-quality data to train Machine Learning (ML) models for network traffic analysis, without noisy or missing data. By selecting the most relevant features for cyber-attack detection, it is possible to improve both the robustness and computational efficiency of the models used in a cybersecurity system. This work presents a feature selection and consensus process that combines multiple methods and applies them to several network datasets. Two different feature sets were selected and were used to train multiple ML models with regular and adversarial training. Finally, an adversarial evasion robustness benchmark was performed to analyze the reliability of the different feature sets and their impact on the susceptibility of the models to adversarial examples. By using an improved dataset with more data diversity, selecting the best time-related features and a more specific feature set, and performing adversarial training, the ML models were able to achieve a better adversarially robust generalization. The robustness of the models was significantly improved without their generalization to regular traffic flows being affected, without increases of false alarms, and without requiring too many computational resources, which enables a reliable detection of suspicious activity and perturbed traffic flows in enterprise computer networks.

An Adversarial Robustness Benchmark for Enterprise Network Intrusion Detection

As cyber-attacks become more sophisticated, improving the robustness of Machine Learning (ML) models must be a priority for enterprises of all sizes. To reliably compare the robustness of different ML models for cyber-attack detection in enterprise computer networks, they must be evaluated in standardized conditions. This work presents a methodical adversarial robustness benchmark of multiple decision tree ensembles with constrained adversarial examples generated from standard datasets. The robustness of regularly and adversarially trained RF, XGB, LGBM, and EBM models was evaluated on the original CICIDS2017 dataset, a corrected version of it designated as NewCICIDS, and the HIKARI dataset, which contains more recent network traffic. NewCICIDS led to models with a better performance, especially XGB and EBM, but RF and LGBM were less robust against the more recent cyber-attacks of HIKARI. Overall, the robustness of the models to adversarial cyber-attack examples was improved without their generalization to regular traffic being affected, enabling a reliable detection of suspicious activity without costly increases of false alarms.

SoK: Realistic Adversarial Attacks and Defenses for Intelligent Network Intrusion Detection

Machine Learning (ML) can be incredibly valuable to automate anomaly detection and cyber-attack classification, improving the way that Network Intrusion Detection (NID) is performed. However, despite the benefits of ML models, they are highly susceptible to adversarial cyber-attack examples specifically crafted to exploit them. A wide range of adversarial attacks have been created and researchers have worked on various defense strategies to safeguard ML models, but most were not intended for the specific constraints of a communication network and its communication protocols, so they may lead to unrealistic examples in the NID domain. This Systematization of Knowledge (SoK) consolidates and summarizes the state-of-the-art adversarial learning approaches that can generate realistic examples and could be used in real ML development and deployment scenarios with real network traffic flows. This SoK also describes the open challenges regarding the use of adversarial ML in the NID domain, defines the fundamental properties that are required for an adversarial example to be realistic, and provides guidelines for researchers to ensure that their future experiments are adequate for a real communication network.

Herb-Drug Interactions: A Holistic Decision Support System in Healthcare

Complementary and alternative medicine are commonly used concomitantly with conventional medications leading to adverse drug reactions and even fatality in some cases. Furthermore, the vast possibility of herb-drug interactions prevents health professionals from remembering or manually searching them in a database. Decision support systems are a powerful tool that can be used to assist clinicians in making diagnostic and therapeutic decisions in patient care. Therefore, an original and hybrid decision support system was designed to identify herb-drug interactions, applying artificial intelligence techniques to identify new possible interactions. Different machine learning models will be used to strengthen the typical rules engine used in these cases. Thus, using the proposed system, the pharmacy community, people's first line of contact within the Healthcare System, will be able to make better and more accurate therapeutic decisions and mitigate possible adverse events.